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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



M, Zo 



TREATISE 



ON THE 




ft 





uni 






CONTAINING 



A COMPLETE SYSTEM 



OF 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING, 



PKOGRESSIVELY ARRANGED. 



T.K.V 



BY 



ICKROY, A.M., 



PRESIDENT OF LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE. 



, 




ST. LOUIS: 

PUBLISHED BY HENDRICKS & CHITTENDEN. 

187 0. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by 

T. R. VICKROY, A. M., 

in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



PREFACE. 



TnE following treatise on English Grammar contains the author's con- 
clusions on this subject after years of teaching and investigation. 

In the works in common use, grammar is regarded as coextensive with 
the science of language; but as there are several distinct branches of 
study relating to the English language, and as each of these branches is 
so related to the others as to be best taught separately, grammar is here 
restricted to a special field. The author, therefore, proposes to separate 
the science of written language into four distinct branches, viz: — 

I. Lexicology, or the science of words, which includes (1) Phonology, 
or the elements of speech, their notation and changes; (2) Etymology, 
or the origin, derivation, and composition of words; and (3) Ortho- 
g it a phy, or the correct representation of words by means of letters. 

II. Grammar, or the laws relating to words combined into sentences,, 
which includes (lj Classification, relating to the parts of speech and 
properties of words; (2) Inflection, or the changes which words undergo 
in order to express certain modifications of thought; and (3) Construc- 
tion, or the arrangement, agreement, and government of words when 
used to express psychical acts. 

III. Composition, or the laws of combining sentences so as to express 
connected thought. These laws relate to capitals, rjunctuation, style and 
its varieties, tne figures of speech, ..prose and poetry, including versifi- 
cation. 

IV. Exegesis, or the science of interpretation, which relates to lite- 
rature, and includes (1) Philology, or the investigation and comparison 
of the English language in the various stages of its growth, together with 
the study of cognate dialects; (2) Criticism, or the laws of judging with 
propriety the faults and beauties of literary compositions; and (3) Her- 
meneutics, or the explanation of an author's words and phrases. 

This plan is logical and comprehensive, and will present the study of 
language in a natural way. 

Beginning with vowel and consonant sounds, which are the elements 
of speech, we proceed to their notation and changes in the formation of 
words from demonstrative and predicative roots, thence to the combi- 
nation of these words so as to form other words, and finally to the correct 
representation of the words so formed. In this process the letter is the 
factor and the word is the product. Then, having formed our vocabulary, 
the laws by which words are combined into sentences are clearly de- 
veloped. Here the word is the factor and the sentence is the product. 
We next take sentences and combine them, so as to express connected 

iii 



iv PREFACE. 

thought. This enables us to treat of capitals, punctuation, &c, and in- 
cludes prosody. Here the sentence is the factor, and discourse is the 
product. These things being accomplished, we are prepared to com- 
mence the study of literature proper, a field of all-absorbing interest, but 
heretofore too much neglected. Instead, therefore, of presenting a series 
of three or four grammars, covering substantially the same ground, and 
presenting the same thing in different forms, the author proposes four 
books, to embrace the entire science of written language, and to afford a 
wide range of instruction. This volume is the second in the series, and 
the author trusts that it will be found adequate as a text-book in 
English Grammar. 

In determining the basis of this science, three things are to be con- 
sidered, viz.: (1) the matter of thought; (2) the thought itself; and (3) 
the words used to represent thought. It is not the province of grammar 
to treat either the matter or the substance of thought, except as they are 
conditioning facts. The things which words represent determine their 
classification, properties, and modifications, and as language is the em- 
bodiment of mental acts in words, the thought itself breathes in the 
verbal forms. All our knowledge is acquired. As a child perceives 
objects, it learns the words by which they are designated. To teach it 
words without a knowledge of the things which they represent, would 
be cramming, a process which, happily, is disappearing under our im- 
proved methods of instruction. A knowledge of divisions and sub- 
divisions, of definitions and rules, will not make any one a grammarian. 
He must understand the principles and usages of the language, and 
must make them so much his own as to apply them whenever occasion 
requires. That which is artificial and arbitrary should find no place in 
a true system — only that which is natural and useful. The object of 
grammar is evidently to teach correct speaking and writing, which can 
be attained only by the practical application of the principles educed 
from a scientific development of the usages, tendencies, and analogies 
of a language. 

This treatise is not designed as a primary book. In the author's 
opinion, no such work is necessary. Oral teaching should prevail at 
first, and the definitions and exercises of this book are sufficiently 
elementary to be used with any class prepared to prosecute the study of 
grammar successfully. "What both teacher and pupil want, is a text-book 
in which the principles of grammar are logically arranged and clearly 
defined, not a hand-book burdened with explanations, which any live 
teacher should be able to give orally. 

Conscious of the imperfection of all human productions, the author 
presents this work to the public as his contribution towards perfecting a 
science so long under the dominion of empiricism. 

Annville, Pa., 

July 16, 1870. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



I. PRELIMINARIES. 

PAGE 

Oral Instruction vii-xii 

Introductory Exercises xiii-xxxvi 

General Definitions and Divisions 13 

General Characteristics of the Parts of Speech 14 

Species of Nouns 15,16 

Properties of Nouns and Pronouns 17-19 

Formation of the Plural Number 20-24 

Formation of the Feminine Gender 25,26 

Formation of the Possessive Case 27, 28 

Species and Forms of Pronouns 29-33 

Verbs. — Conjugations. — Voices 34, 35 

Indicative Mode. — Tenses. — Forms. — Agreement 36 

Paradigm of Have and Be in the Indicative 37 

Paradigm of Strike in the Indicative 38, 39 

II. SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

The Proposition. — Simple Elements 40-42 

Analysis and Parsing. — Intransitive Verbs 43-46 

Classification of Adjectives 47 

Uses of Distributives 48,49 

Uses of Definitives 50-52 

Uses of Restrictives 53-55 

Properties and Forms of Adjectives 56-60 

Copulative Verbs. — xittributes 61-65 

Adjectives as Modifiers 66-68 

Adjective Constructions. — Possessive Case 69-72 

Transitive Verbs — Objective Elements 73-75 

Adjective Constructions — Apposition 76-77 

Classification of Adverbs 7S-79 

Construction of Adverbs 1 81-83 

Nouns used as Adverbs 84-86 

Classification of Prepositions 86-89 

Construction of Prepositions 90-93 

Verbal Adjectives 94-96 

The Verb 97-100 

Infinitives and Participles 101-109 

1* v 



VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

The Principal Parts 104-110 

Auxiliary Verbs 111-113 

Forms of the Verb 114-116 

Agreement „ 117-118 

Formation of the Tenses of the Indicative 119-121 

Formation of the Tenses of the Subjunctive and Imperative 122-126 

III. COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

Classification of Sentences...... 127-134 

Classification of Elements 135,136 

Classification of Conjunctions 137,138 

Conjunctive Pronouns 139-141 

Conjunctive Adverbs 142-144 

Classification of Connectives ■. 145, 146 

Substantive Clauses 147-151 

Relative Clauses 152-155 

Conditional and Concessive Clauses 156-160 

Final and Causal Clauses 161-163 

Local Clauses 164, 165 

Temporal Clauses 166-168 

Modal Clauses 169-172 

IV. COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Coordination 173-176 

Agreement with Compound Elements. 177-186 

V. ABRIDGED SENTENCES, &c. 

Contraction and Abridgment 182-184 

Arrangement and Transposition 185,186 

Infinitives and Participles 187-192 

Transito-Dative Verbs 193-196 

Transito-Copulative and Transito- Partitive Verbs 197-200 

Inceptive Verbs 201-203 

Agreement of Verbs with Partitives f 204- 

Agreement of Verbs with several singular subjects \ 207 

Infinitives and Participles after other Verbs 208-210 

Interjections, Expletives, and Intensives 211,212 

Independent Elements , 213-217 

Modal Propositions.— Postulates 21S-220 

Relation of Grammar to other Linguistic Sciences 221-223 

Classification of the Parts of Speech 224-226 

Classification of the Rules of Syntax 227-230 

Plurals of Foreign Nouns 231-233 

Masculine and Feminine Forms 234-236 

The Sounds of the English Language (Haldeman) 2S7-240 



SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 



Exercise L 

1. Make grammar & general exercise. Do not use books until the 
class becomes interested in the subject. 

2. A class in any study should be considered an organized body, 
with the teacher as chairman. No member of the class should 
speak without permission. When a question is asked, each one 
that can answer it should raise his hand. The teacher should then 
direct some one to answer the question, and afterwards call upon 
the class to answer in concert 

3. The attention of each pupil should be secured before a recita- 
tion is commenced. Order and silence on the part of the teacher 
will secure this object. No teaching should be done while pupils 
are looking into books, tugging at one another, writing, whispering, &c. 
Pupils should have slates and pencils. 

4. Arrange upon your desk several objects, as & piece of crayon, a 
book, a ball, a bell, &c, and commence and carry on a dialogue simi- 
lar to the following: 

Teacher [holding up a book). What is this? 

James. A book. 

Teacher. Write "booh"' on your slates. 

[A pause.) Have all written it? 

[Hands up.) Where is the book, class? 

Pupils [answering variously). In your hand. On my slate. 

vii 



Vlll SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 

Teacher [repeating). Where is the book? 

Mary. In your hand. 

Teacher. If the book is in my hand, what have you written on 
your slates ? 

John. The word booh. 

Teacher. Tell me the difference between what I hold in my hand 
and what you have written on your slates, class. 

Pupils. You hold in your hand the book itself; its name is 
written on our slates. 

0. A similar course should be pursued with several objects. The 
teacher should request some one to write the names in order upon 
the board, beginning each word with a capital and putting. a period 
after it. Thus : 

f Crayon. 

Names. \ \°^ 
I Ball. 

6. The pupils should now name the objects in the room. 

7. Require each pupil to make a list of the names of the objects 
he sees on his way to and from school. This is preparatory to the 

next exercise. 

# 

Exercise II. 

1, The teacher should call his roll and note the number of names 
each pupil has written. This will stimulate them and make them 
more observing. 

2, The teacher, writing with the crayon, should inquire what the 
crayon does ? Many will say that it writes. Explain that you your- 
self write, but that the crayon marks. So with each of the other ob- 
jects. - The bell does not ring; it sounds. The box does not set; it 
stands. The teacher throws the ball ; it bounds. 

3. Make two columns, one for names and another for actions. 

Thus : 

Names. Actions. 

Crayon marks. 

Box stands. 

Bell sounds. 

Ball bounds. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. IX 

4. Perform a number of acts, such as writing, reading, walking, <£c. 
and request the class to tell what you do in each case. 

5. Require the class to write the names of at least twenty objects, 
with appropriate actions, as a preparation for the next exercise. 

Exercise III. 

1. Call your roll and note the extent of each pupil's preparation. 

2. Write a name and an action on the board, and explain the nature 
of a proposition. State that a proposition contains a name and one 
or more words, which say something of the object represented by 
that name. The name is called subject, the word or words which 
say something about the object, the predicate. 

3. The class should analyze several sentences written on the board, 
using a formula like this : Chalk marks is a proposition, of which 
chalk is the subject and marks, the predicate. 

Exercise IT. 

1. Take a piece of crayon and ask the class to name its color. 
They will say that it is white. By feeling the crayon they will per- 
ceive that it is soft, and by breaking it, that it is brittle. 

! white, 
soft, 
brittle. 
Other objects should be similarly treated. 

2. Show the difference between a quality and the thing to which 
it belongs. The quality is in the object, and cannot be separated 
from it. The word crayon designates a certain object as a whole, 
without expressing any of its qualities. White, soft, brittle, &c, are 
names of qualities which inhere in the crayon and are inseparable 
from it. 

3. Three kinds of words have now been presented. 1. Names of 
whole things (Xouns.) 2. Words which sag something about these whole 
things (Verbs.) 3. Names of qualities belonging to whole things (Ad- 
jectives.) The teacher should make these distinctions clear by 
suitable illustration. 



x SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 

4. Take the sentence, Crayon is white, and ask the class what words 
say something of crayon. They will say " is white." Then ask what is 
said of crayon, and they will tell you white. Then explain to them that 
the word or words representing what is said of the subject is called 
the attribute, and the word or words by which the assertion is made, 
the copula. Sentences like this should be analyzed according to the 
following formula: Crayon is white is a proposition of which crayon 
is the subject, and is white, the predicate, of which is is the copula 
and white the attribute. 

5. The te'acher should name five objects, and require the class t( 
ascertain their qualities as a preparation for the next exercise. 

Exercise T. 

1. Examine each pupil's preparation and correct any mistakes he 
may have made. Write several sentences on the board, and ask 
some pupil to analyze them, allowing the class to correct mistakes. 
"When a pupil has analyzed a sentence, and his mistakes, if any, 
have been corrected, the class should analyze the sentence in con- 
cert. ^® s Oral analysis cultivates correct expression, and concert recita- 
tion gives life and interest to the exercise. 

2. The nature and office of words expressing the external limita- 
tions of whole things, should now be presented. Take the words in 
§133 and show that they are joined to words taken in a general 
or indefinite sense, that is, that the word represents any or all 
of its class. So, too, with the words in £136. They are used to 
particularize objects, that is, to point out the position, number, 
order, &c, of objects. 

Exercise VL 

1. Write sentences like the following on the board, and require 
pupils to tell to what class each word belongs : 

Distributives. Definitives. 

A horse is a u>e'ul animal. The man is sick. 

The weather is cold. That boy is intelligent. 

Each note was clear. Several deer were seen. 

Every man hopes. Few men are careful. 

Jill men are mortal. Three boys came. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. XI 

gsip^Drill on Distributives and Definitives until each member of 
the class can distinguish them readily. 

2. Analyze the above sentences, using the formulas given in $159 
and £163. 

Exercise TIL 

1. Certain words express place, time, cause, manner, or degree. 
These limit, not objects, but words which say something about ob- 
jects, or, express some degree of quality or modality. Form sentences 
containing some of the words contained in §181 . Require the class 
to point out the limiting words. Such words are called Adverbs. 

2. Analyze sentences containing adjectives, nouns, verbs and adverbs, 

3. Require the class to write ten sentences containing adverbs, as 
a preparation for the next exercise. 

Exercise Till. 

1. Examine the sentences prepared by the class. Analyze several 
sentences. Let some pupil analyze a sentence. The class should 
correct mistakes and then analyze the same sentence in concert. 

2. Place, time, cause, or manner, is expressed sometimes by a com- 
bination of words; as, The box stands on the table; The pen is in 
my hand ; Jane sits behind Mary. Th«* words on, in and behind, show 
relations of things, and connect the words representing the things so 
related. 

3. Require sentences containing prepositions to be written as a pre- 
paration for the next exercise. Use the words in $ 9 & 195 and 196. 

Exercise IX. 

Examine the sentences written. Teach the class how to analyze 
sentences containing prepositions. See §208. 

Exercise X. 

Take lissom 51 and teach the class how to determine the 
different kinds of nouns. Each pupil has a name; as, John, Mary, 
Samuel. These words are proper nouns. The class consists of males 
and females, designated by the terms boy* ami girls. These words 
are names of things classed, and are called common nouns. The 



Xll SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 

teacher and pupils constitute a body called a class. Words desig- 
nating bodies of living objects or groups of things are termed col- 
lective nouns. Some of the class are obedient; others, diligent, &c. 
"We speak of the obedience or diligence of certain members of the 
class. These words are formed from adjectives, and are called 
abstract nouns. The teacher instructs and the pupils recite. These 
acts are spoken of as instruction and recitation, and such words 
are denominated verbal nouns. Thus pupils can be taught how to 
distinguish the species of nouns. 

Exercise XL 

Use Wesson III to teach the properties of nouns. Employ sen- 
tences to illustrate person, number, gender and case. Teach the defi- 
nitions contained in the Lesson. Carelessness in defining is very ob- 
jectionable. Those who study grammar should be exact in the use 
of words. 

Exercise XII. 

The nature of the pronoun should now be developed. Let the 
teacher say, He came, and then ask, Who came? The class will not 
know who is meant, unless some person was previously spoken of, 
and the reference is obvious. A pronoun does not stand for a noun. 
The noun represents an object; so does the pronoun. Pronouns are 
universal nouns. An object is already present to the mind, 
and, to beautify language, pronouns, which represent such objects, 
are substituted for the names of objects thus present. This is their 
characteristic quality. 

Exercise XIII. 

The grammatical forms of nouns and pronouns should now be 
taught. Lessons IV, V, will furnish the necessary data. Present 
only the prominent features, omitting notes and remarks. 

J$^ A good rule for teaching anything is this: Teach what in 
general first ; afterwards what is particular. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 



NOUNS. ggl7-24. 

What is a noun? 

A Noun is a word used to denote an object. 

Give examples. 

Tree, cow, horse, sled, pencil. 

Mention the names of ten objects. 

What are the principal kinds of nouns? 

Proper nouns and Common nouns. 

What is a proper noun? 

A word which denotes a particular person or place. 

Give examples. 

John, Henry, Mary, Alice, William, Boston, Reading. 

Mention the names of ten particular persons or places. 
What is a Common noun? 

A word which denotes any one or all of several similar 
objects. 

Give examples. 

Boy, desk, book, slate, man, paper, tree. 

Mention ten words, each of which denotes any one of several 
similar objects. 

Select the nouns from the following sentences, and tell their kind: — 

1. Mary has a new book. 

2. John is a diligent student. 

3. The teacher wrote a letter. 

4. The boys have chairs and desks. 

5. The pupils should have slates and pencils. 

6. Girls love ropes and dolls. 

Model. — John is a good boy. 

The word John is a noun, because it denotes an object; it is a Proper 

noun, because it denotes a particular person. 
The word boy is a noun, because it denotes an object; it is a Common 

noun, because it may denote any one of several similar objects. 

ECr* Note to the Teacher. — Assign the class some page in their Reader, 
and require them to select the nouns, and tell whether they are Proper or 
Common. Continue a similar exercise with each subsequent Lesson. 

2 xiii 



XIV INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 

€JENI>ER. I 57. 

Some objects are males, some are females, and others are without 
sex. 

On what does the gender of a noun depend? 

On the sex of the object or objects which it represents. 

How many genders are there? 

Three; the Masculine, the Feminine and the Neuter. 

What nouns are of the masculine gender? 

The names of objects of the male sex. 

Give some examples of masculine nouns. 

Boy, man, king, lion, buck, father. 

Mention ten male objects. 

"What nouns are of the feminine gender? 

The names of objects of the female sex. 

Give some examples of feminine nouns. 

Girl, woman, queen, lioness, doe, mother. 

Mention ten female objects. 

"What nouns are of the neuter gender? 

The names of objects without sex. 

Give some examples of neuter nouns. 

Chair, desk, book, pencil, black-board, bell. 

Mention ten objects without sex. 

Select the nouns from the following sentences, and fell their kind and 

gender: — 

1. The boy gave his sister an apple. 

2. James visited his uncle and aunt. 

3. My father bought your nephew's store. 

4. My mother's father was a duke. 

5. The poet Cowper was a bachelor. 

6. The Emperor and Empress took a drive. 

Model. — John visited his niece. 

The word John is a proper noun, because it denotes a particular 
person; it is of the masculine gender, because it denotes an object 
of the male sex. 

The word niece is a common noun of the feminine gender, because it 
may denote any one of certain female relatives. 

j^H** Write lists of the masculine, the feminine and the neuter nouns in 
the passage assigned. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 



XV 



FORMATION OF GEXDER. §58. 
How can you tell the gender of a noun? 
Sometimes by its meaning and sometimes by its form. 
"What is the first method of expressing gender? 
By denoting the male by one word, and the corresponding 
female by another. 

Give examples. 
Masculine. Feminine. 
Bachelor maid. 

Beau belle. 

Boy girl. 

Bridegroom bride. 
Colt filly. 

What is the second method of expressing gender? 

By suffixing ess or ine to the masculine form, or changing its 
final syllable into ess, ress, tress or trix. 

Give examples. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Drake 


duck. 


Sir 


madam. 


Gander 


goose. 


Swain 


nymph. 


Indian 


squaw. 


Uncle 


aunt. 


Lord 


lady. 


Wizard 


witch. 


Nephew 


niece. 


Youth 


maiden. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot 


abbess. 


Emperor 


empress. 


Poet 


poetess. 


Actor 


actress. 


Executor 


executrix. 


Prince 


princess. 


Author 


authoress. 


Hero 


heroine. 


Tailor 


tailoress. 


Count 


countess. 


Jew 


Jewess. 


Tutor 


tutress. 


Doctor 


doctress. 


Lion 


lioness. 


Waiter 


waitress. 



What is the third method of expressing gender? 

By affixing a distinguishing word. 

Give examples* 

Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. 

Grand-father grand-rao^er. Male-child female-child. 

He-goat she-goat. Mer-man mer-maid. 

Man-servant maid-servant. Buck-r&bhit efoe-rabbit. 

Give the masculine noun corresponding to each of the following femi- 
nine nouns: — 

Bride, lady, belle, goose, squaw, nymph, witch, heroine, Jewess, 
niece, lioness, she-goat, cfoe-rabbit. 

Give the feminine form of each of the following masculine nouns : — 

Colt, youth, emperor, count, abbot, author, tutor, poet, exe- 
cutor, maw-servant, grand-father. 
Select the nouns from the following sentences, and tell their kind and gender : — 

1. The prince and princess are now king and queen. 

2. The landlady was very polite to the gentlemen. 

3. His sister Julia was a duchess. 

4. His brother was executor, and his sister administratrix. 

5. The bride was beautiful, but oh! the bridegroom I 

6. Ye swains whose nymphs in every grace excel. 



XVI 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 



NUMBER. \\ 31-34. \\ 49-55. 

What does number show? 

Number shows how many objects a noun denotes. 
How many numbers are there? 
Two; the Singular and the Plural. 
When is a noun of the singular number? 
When it denotes but one object. 
When is a noun of the plural number? 
When it denotes more than one object. 
How can you tell the number of a noun? 
Generally by its form. 

Mention the seven nouns of which the plural is formed by changing 
the vowel of the singular. 

Sing. Foot, goose, tooth, louse, mouse, man, woman. 
Plur. Feet, geese, teeth, lice, mice, men, women. 

Mention the four nouns which add n in the plural. 
Sing. Child, ox, . brother, cow. 

Plur. Children, oxen, brethren, kine. 

Mention the sixteen nouns which change f fe or ff into ves for 
the plural. 



Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Beef 


beeves. 


Life 


lives. 


wife 


wives. 


Calf 


calves. 


Loaf 


loaves. 


wolf 


wolves. 


Elf 


elves. 


Self 


selves. 


wharf 


j wharves. 
\ wharfs. 


Half 


halves. 


Sheaf 


sheaves. 


Knife 


knives. 


Shelf 


shelves. 


staff 


J staves. 
\ staffs. 


Leaf 


leaves. 


Thief 


thieves. 



Give the plural form of the following nouns: — 

Calf, ox, leaf, foot, life, leaf, tooth, cow, mouse, brother, wolf, 
loaf, knife, beef and sheaf. 

Tell the number and gender of the following nouns : — 
Feet, goose, brethren, knives, self, thieves, mice, shelf, wolves, 
children, teeth and oxen. 

Select the nouns from the following sentences , and tell their number 

and gender: — 

1. Foxes prey upon geese and chickens. 

2. The mice ran into their holes. 

3. The children were frightened at the men. 

4. Nothing but leaves for gathered sheaves. 

5. Lives of great men all remind us 
We can make our lives sublime. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. XVII 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL, g 48. 

How is the plural of nouns generally formed? 

By suffixing es, 's or s to the singular. 

To what nouns is the syllable es suffixed? 

To nouns ending in ge, eh (soft), sh, x, s, z, ce, se and ss. 

Give examples. 

Judge, judges; church, churches; brush, brushes; box. 
boxes; gas, gases; science, sciences; license, licenses , 
hiss, hisses; topaz, topazes, 

To what other nouns is es suffixed? 

To nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, the y being 
changed into l\ 
Give examples* 

Geography, geographies; lady, ladies; fty, flies. 

To what other nouns is es suffixed? 

Generally to nouns ending in i, o oru, preceded by a consonant. 

Give examples. 

Rabbi, rabbies; hero, heroes; gnu, gnues. 

To what is 's suffixed? 

To letters, figures, marks, signs, &c. 

Give examples. 

A, two a's; 5, three 5's; -J-, +'s (plusses); ., . y s. 

To what nouns is s suffixed ? 

Generally to nouns not ending in an s-sound. 

Give examples. 

Boy, boys; slate, slates; book, books; Joy, joys; money, 
moneys. 

Form the plural of the following nouns: — 

Bench, table, brush, chair, pen, tax, blush, toy, house, tree, 
clue, alkali, negro, story, topaz. 

Select the nouns from the following sentences, and tell their gender 

and number: — 

1. Judges grant licenses, 

2. Ladies should study the sciences. 

3. The boxes were conveyed to the church. 

4. The flies annoy the horses. 

5. Geography is a useful study. 

6. Dot your i's and stroke your t's. 

B 2* 



XV111 INTRODUCTORY EXERCISER 

FERSOI AMD CASE- gf 26-&CK H 4tt-44* 

What properties of nouns have you learned? 
Gender and dumber. 

What other properties belong to nouns ? 
Two; Person and Case. 

"Upon what does Person depend? 

Upon the relation of an object to the speaker* 

How many grammatical Persons are there? 

Three; the First, the Second, and the Third, 

When is a noun or pronoun of the First Person? 

When it. represents a person as speaking. 

When is a noun or pronoun of the Second Person? 

When it represents an object as spoken to. 

When is a noun or pronoun of the Third Person? 

When it represents an object as spoken of. 

Upon what does Case depend? 

Upon the relation of one word to another. 

What is Case? 

The form of a word corresponding to its use. 

How many cases are there? 

Three; the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective, 

What class of words exhibit Person and Case? 

Words called Personal Pronouns. 

What do Personal Pronouns show? 

Whether the object represented is the person speaking, the 
object addressed, or the object spoken of. 
Bepeat the following pronouns: — 

First Person. Second Person. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


PluraL 


Nominative. 


I 


we. 


thou 


you or ye 


Possessive* 


My 


our. 


thy 


your. 


Objective. 


Me 


us. 


thee 


you. 


Remark— Y 


ou is used in 


both numbers. 

Third Person. 

Singular. 




Plural. 




MASCULINE. FEMININE. 


NEUTER. 


ANY GENDER. 


Kominative, 


He 


she 


it 


they. 


Possessive. 


His 


her 


its 


their. 


Objective. 


Him 


her 


it 


them. 



Select the pronouns from the following sentences, and tell their gender, number, 

person and case : — 

1. I lost my hat. 

2. He told me a story about his uncle. 

3. We saw them in your father's orchard. 

4. Our soldiers defeated their country's enemiea. 

5. He sold his kite for a penny. 

6. She showed us her fan. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. XIX 

FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE. § 59. 

How can you tell the case of a noun? 

The nominative and objective, by their use, and the possessive 
by its form. 

How is the possessive case of nouns formed? 

By suffixing an apostrophe ( • ) or 's to the nominative. 

To what nouns is an apostrophe ( * ) suffixed? 

To common nouns ending in s, se or ce. 

Give examples. 

For conscience 7 sake; eagles 9 wings; ladies' gloves; boys' 
sports; for goodness' sake. 

To what nouns is 's suffixed? 

To common nouns not ending in s 9 se or ce. 

Give examples. 

Man's life; men's shoes; children's clothes; my father's 
house; his brother's book. 

How are proper nouns pluralized? 

Generally by suffixing 9 s. 

Give examples. 

John's book; Prentice's poems; Willis's writings; Davis's 
Astronomy. 

What proper nouns form the Possessive by suffixing an apostrophe ( » ) ? 

Proper Nouns ending in the sound of ers, eea and ez. 

Give examples. 

Archimedes' screw; Moses' anger; Ayrs' Pills. 

Write Paradigms of the following nouns : — 
Army, bench, book, brush, chair, fox, goose, grass, judge, man, 
sense, swan, tooth and wife. 

Model. 

Singular. Plural. 



Nominative. Possessive. Objective. Nominative. Possessive. Objective. 

Fly fly's fly. Flies flies' flies. 

Child child's child. Children children's children. 

Select the nouns and pronouns from the following sentences, and tell their 
person, number, gender and case : — 

1. My brother bought your store. 

2. The farmer's horse ran away. 

3. The trees have lost their foliage. 

4. John, study your lesson. 

5. The men conquered their foes. 

6. We read Tennyson's poems. 



XX INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 

VERBS. H 79-83. PARTICIPLES and INFINITIVES. 

What is a verb? 

A Verb is a word which asserts. 
Give examples. 

John walks, stands, lies or sits. 
What words are classed with the verb? 
Infinitives and Participles. 
How many Infinitives are there? 
Two; the Present and the Perfect. 
Give examples of the Present Infinitive. 
To see, to be seen ; to write, to be written. 
Give examples of the Perfect Infinitive. 

To have seen, to have been seen ; to have gone, to have been gone. 
How many Participles are there? 
Three ; the Present, the Past and the Perfect. 
Give examples of the Present Participle. 
Seeing, knowing, going, coming. 
Give examples of the Past Participle. 
Seen, known, gone, come, drawn. 
Give examples of the Perfect Participle. 
Having seen, having known, having gone. 
How many kinds of verbs are there? 

Three; Transitive. Copulative and Intransitive. 
What is a Transitive Verb? 

A Verb expressing action which affects or causes an object. 
Give examples. 

John struck Charles; He saw a ship; Birds build nests. 
What is a Copulative Verb? 
A Verb which simply asserts. 
Give examples. 

Belle is a student; Henry was angry; John has been good. 
What is an Intransitive Verb? 

An Intransitive Verb asserts something of the object denoted 
by its subject. 
Give examples. 

Jane sleeps; Mary runs; Sarah weeps. 
Select the verbs from the following sentences, and tell their kind: — 

1. The stars shine until the sun rises. 

2. He bought the book which you gave me. 

3. John studies Geography and reads German. 

4. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

5. After James resigned, John became secretary. 

6. The conscious water saw its God and blushed. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. XXI 

VOICE. H 88-91. MODE. ?g 219-222. 

What properties of the Verb depend upon relation? 
Three; Voice, Mode and Tense. 

How many Voices are there? 

Two; the Active and the Passive. 

When is a Verb in the Active Voice? 

When the action which it expresses proceeds from the object 
denoted by its subject. 

Give examples. 

John loves Mary; Jane writes a letter. 

When is a Verb in the Passive Voice? 

When the action which it expresses terminates on the object 
denoted by its subject. 

Give examples. 

Mary is loved by John; The letter is written. 

What does Mode show? 

Mode shows how a Verb asserts. 

How many Modes are there? 

Three; the Indicative, the Subjunctive and the Im- 
perative. 

When is a Verb in the Indicative Mode? 

When it asserts a fact or an inquiry. 

Give examples. 

John writes; Does John write? Mary sang; Did Mary 
sing t Henry sleeps ; Did Henry sleep f 

When is a Verb in the Subjunctive Mode? 

When it asserts something as existing only in thought. 

Give examples. 

John can write; Mary may sing ; Jane will come, if it do 
not rain. 

When is a verb in the Imperative Mode? 

W r hen it asserts something as willed by the speaker. 

Give examples. 

Study your lesson; Thou shalt not steal; You may go; Let 
me write; Thy kingdom come. 

Select the verbs from the following sentences, and tell their kind, 

voice and mode : — 

1. John wrote a letter. 2. Jane talks and Mary studies. 

3. James can climb a tree. 4. Boys, listen to the teacher. 

5. They may come to-morrow. 6. Let me die the death of the righteous. 



XX11 INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 

TENSES. §§95-101. 

"What does Tense show? 

Tense shows the time of the assertion. 

How many Tenses are there ? 

Six; the Present, the Past, the Future; the Present-Perfect, 
the Past-Perfect and the Future-Perfect. 

When is a Verb in the Present Tense? 

When it asserts what is now taking place, or continues to exist. 

When is a Verb in the Past Tense. 

When it asserts what took place at some past time. 

When is a Verb in the Future Tense? 

When it asserts what will take place hereafter. 

When is a Verb in the Present-Perfect Tense? 

When it asserts something as completed in present time. 

When is a Verb in the Past-Perfect Tense? 

When it asserts something as completed before some specified 
past time. 

When is a Verb in the Future-Perfect Tense? 

When it asserts something as completed before some specified 
future time. 

Give examples of the Present Tense. 

He sees , he is seeing, he is seen, he does see; If he see, he 
seeth; he may see; see. 

Give examples of the Past Tense. 

He saw, he was seeing, he was seen, he did see, he might see. 

Give examples of the Future Tense. 

He will see, he will be seeing, he will be seen. 

Give examples of the Present-Perfect Tense. 

He has seen, he has been seeing, he has been seen, he may 
have seen. 

Give examples of the Past-Perfect Tense. 

He had seen, he had been seeing, he had been seen, he might 
have been seen. 

Give examples of the Future-Perfect Tense. 

He will have seen, he will have been seeing, he will have 
been seen. 

Select the verbs from the following sentences, and tell their Icind, voice, mode and tense : — 

1. John came yesterday and will leave to-day. 

2. The night is far spent ; the day is at hand. 

3. The bell had rung before we started. 

4. I shall accompany you when you go to the city. 

5. John has finished his composition. 6. He will have gone before you start. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 



XX1U 



Principal Parts. Auxiliaries. 

Which are the Principal Parts of a Verb? 

The Present, the Preterite and the Past Participle. 

What part of a Verb is called the Present? 

Its simplest form or root. 

How many methods of forming the Preterite are there? 
Two; the Strong and the Weak. 
How does a Strong Verb form its Preterite? 
By changing or shortening the vowel of its root. 
Give examples. 

See, saw; know, knew; bite, bit; shoot, shot 
How does a Weak Verb form its Preterite? 

By saiffixing t, d, or ed to the root, the root-vowel being some- 
times changed or shortened. 
Give examples. 

Cry, cried; sleep, slept; buy, bought; invite, invited. 
In what four ways is the Past Participle constituted? 

1. By suffixing 11 or en to the root; as, Know, known. 

2. By suffixing in or en to the Preterite; as, Chose, chosen. 

3. Come and run, with their compounds, use the same form 

for the Present and the Past Participle. 

4. Some Strong verbs and all Weak ones use the same form 

for the Preterite and the Past Participle, 
What is an Auxiliary Verb? 
A Yerb used to conjugate another verb. 
Mention the Auxiliary Verbs. 

Shall, will, have, be, do, may, can, must and let. 
Give the Present Tense of the Auxiliaries. 



Sing. 1. I 


shall 


will 


have 


am 


do 


may 


can. 


2. Thou 


shal£ 


wiU 


has£ 


art 


dost 


umyest 


canst. 


3. He 


shall 


wili 


has 


is 


does 


may 


can. 


Plur. 1. We. 


shall 


will 


have 


are 


do 


may 


can. 


2. You 


shali 


will 


have 


are 


do 


may 


can. 


3. They 


shall 


will 


have 


are 


do 


may 


can. 


Give the P 


ast Tense of the Auxiliaries. 








Sing. 1. / 


should 


would 


had 


was 


did 


might 


could. 


2. Tliou 


should 


wouldsi 


hads£ 


wast 


did.^ 


mightecf 


couldst. 


3. m 


should 


would 


had 


was 


did 


might 


could. 


Plur. 1. We 


should 


would 


had 


were 


did 


might 


could. 


2. You 


should 


would 


had 


were 


did 


might 


could. 


3, They 


should 


would 


had 


were 


did 


might 


could. 



XXIV INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 

THE FORMS OF THE VERB* 

How many forms may a Verb have? 

Ten; the Common, the Progressive, the Passive, the Progresso- 
Passive, the Emphatic, the Interrogative, the Solemn, the Con- 
ditional, the Potential and the Imperative. 

What is the Common Form ? 

The Form which adds s in the Present Indicative, third person, 
singular; as, John sees. 

"What is the Progressive Form? 

The Form in which the Present Participle is annexed to the 
various forms of the verb to be; as, John is seeing. 

What is the Passive Form? 

The Form in which the Past Participle is annexed to the 
various forms of the verb to be; as, John is seen. 

What is the Progresso-Passive Form? 

The Form in which being is placed between the Auxiliary and 
the Participle of the Passive Form; as, The house is being built m 

What is the Emphatic Form? 

The Form in which the auxiliary do or did is used with the 
root of a verb to form the Present and Past Tenses; as, John 
does see; John did see. 

What is the Interrogative Form? 

The Form in which the Verb or x\uxiliary is placed before 
the subject; as, Does John see? Has he seen? 

What is the Solemn Form? 

The Form which uses th or eth in the third person singular of 
the Present Indicative, and t or st in the second person singular 
of all the tenses; as, Thou seesT; UeseeTW, Thou sawest. 

What is the Conditional Form? 

'The Form in which the root of a verb without change is used 
in all the numbers and persons of the Present Tense, and the 
plural of the Preterite, in ail the numbers and persons of the 
Past Tense; as, If he see; If he were seen. 

What is the Potential Form? 

The Form in which the Auxiliaries may, can, must, might, 
could, would and shoidd are used; as, J may see; J might see. 

What is the Imperative Form? 

The Form in which the root of a verb is used to express what is 
willed by the speaker; as, Go; Thy kingdom come; Rest we here. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. XXV 

THE FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 

How is the Present Tense Formed ? 

From the root, sores being suffixed in the third person singular. 
Ex. — I go, you go, he goes; we go, you go, they go. 
How is the Past Tense formed? - 
From the Preterite 

Ex. — I went, you went, he went; we went, you went, they went. 
How is the Future Tense formed? 

By combining shall and will with the root, using shall in the 
first person and will in the second and the third. 

Ex. — I shall go, you will go, he will go; we shall go, &c. 

How is the Present-Perfect Tense formed? 

By combining have with the Past Participle. 

Ex. — I have gone, you have gone, he has gone, &c. 

How is the Past-Perfect Tense formed ? 

By combining had with the Past Participle. 

Ex. — I had gone, you had gone, he had gone, &c. 

How is the Future-Perfect Tense formed? 

By combining shall have andwill havewith the Past Participle. 

Ex. — I shall have gone, you will have gone, &c. 

How is the Present Potential formed? 

By combining may, can or must with the root. 
Ex. — I may, can or must go; you may, can or must go. 
How is the Past Potential formed? 

By combining might, could, would or should with the root. 
Ex. — I might, could, would or should go. 
How is the Perfect Potential formed? 

By combining may, can or must with have and the Past Participle. 
Ex. — I may have gone; you may have gone, &o. 
How is the Past Perfect Potential formed? 

By combining might, could, would or should with have and 
the Past Participle. 

Ex. — I might have gone; you might have gone. 

How are the tenses of the Passive formed? 

By combining the verb to be with the Past Participle. 

How are the tenses of the Progressive formed? 

By combining the verb to be with the Present Participle. 

Form the tenses of the following Verbs : — 



Root. 


Know, 


see, 


write, 


run, 


sing. 


come, 


think. 


Preterite 


Knew, 


6aw, 


wrote, 


ran, 


sang, 


came, 


thought. 


Past Part 


Known, 


seen 


written, 
3 


run, 


sung. 


come, 


thought. 



XXVI 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 



CONJUGATION. 

The Paradigms of the Verb, as found on pages 37-39 and 
117-126 should now be thoroughly learned. 

The Conjugation of the Verb may be taught orally by re- 
quiring the " Signs of the Tenses" (I- VII) to be learned, and 
by writing the Parts and Symbols as presented below. 



I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


T. 


I shall. 


I have. 


I had. 


I am. 


I was. 


You will. 


You have. 


You had. 


You are. 


You were. 


He will. 


He has. 


He had. 


He is. 


He was. 


We shall. 


We have. 


We had. 


We are. 


We were. 


You will. 


You have. 


You had. 


You are. 


You were. 


They will. 


They have. 


They had. 


They are. 


They were, 



TI. 

I may, can or must. 
You may, can or must. 
He may, can or must. 
We may, can or must. 
You may, can or must. 
They may, can or must. 



VII. 

I might, could, would or should. 
You might, could, would or should. 
He might, could, would or should. 
We might, could, would or should. 
You might, could, would or should. 
They might, could, would or should. 



Bepresent the Parts of the Verb to be by a, 

b, c, d; of have, by 1, 2, 3 and 4, and of any 
other verb by A, B, C, and D. 

(a.) (6.) (c.) (d.) 

Thus: Be was been being. 

(1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) 

have had had having. 

(A.) (2?.) (C.) (D.) 

see saw seen seeing. 



Indicative. Subjunctive (Pot. Form). 



Present. 
Past. 
Future. 

Present Perfect. 
Past Perfect. 
Future Perfect, 



Common. 
A 

B 

I, A 

II, C 

III, C 



Progressive. 
IT, D 


Passive. 
IY, C 


Common. 
VI, A 


V, D 


Y, 


VII, A 


I, a, D 


I, a,C 




II, c, D 


II, c,C 


VI, i,c 


III, c, D 


III,c,C 


VII, 1, c 


I,l,c,D 


1,1, c,C 





nve. 

VI, a, D 

VII, a,D 



VI, 1, c, D 

VII, 1, c, D 



Passive. 
VI, a, C 



VII,l,c,C 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. XXVU 

Adjectives. Articles and Pronominal^. H 130-136. 

What is an Adjective? 

An Adjective is a word joined to a noun to limit its application, 
or to describe the object which a noun or pronoun represents. 
Give examples. 

Good boys; diligent students; each boy. 
What words are classed as Adjectives? 
Articles, Pronominals, Demonstratives and Numerals. 
What words are Articles? 

A or an, called the Indefinite Article; and the, called the 
Definite Article. 

What do the Articles show? 

They show whether the Noun to which they are joined, denotes 
a particular or an indefinite object. 

When must an be used? 

Before words beginning with a, e, 2, and o and u (not pro- 
nounced like w or ?/), silent h, or an unaccented syllable begin- 
ning with A, 

Give examples. 

An hour, an ear, an heroic action; an hotel; a Union soldier. 

How is the Definite Article used? 

Sometimes it points out a previously-mentioned or well-known 
object, and sometimes it shows that the noun to which it is 
joined, is taken in a general sense. 

Give examples. 

The man is dead; The horse is a useful animal. 

What words are called Pronominal Adjectives? 

All, any or several, each, every and no. 

What do these words show? 

They show whether the noun to which they are joined, denotes 
objects collectively, indefinitely or individually. 

Give examples. 

All my books; any man, several men; each man, every man, 
no man. 
Select the Adjectives from the following sentences, und tell their kind: — 

1. The boy shot a rabbit and a partridge. 

2. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

3. No lessons, no tasks, no schools. 

4. The eyes of the Lord are in every place. 

5. The trees are all covered with blossoms. 

6. Each day has its own cares. 



XXV111 INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 

ADJECTIVES. H 136-189. 

"What words are Demonstratives? 

This, these; that, those; the former, the latter; yon or yonder; 
the same, &c. 

What do these words show? 

They point out objects in relation to the speaker. 

Ex. — This man, these men; that tree, those trees. 

What words are Cardinal Numbers? 

One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, &c. 

What do Cardinal Numbers show? 

They show how many objects the noun to which they are joined, 
denotes. 

What words are Ordinal Numbers? 

First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, &c. 

What do Ordinal Numbers show? 

They show the order in which objects, or groups of objects, 
are taken. 

Ex. — The first tree; the first three boys. 

What is a Qualifying Adjective? 

A word which describes the object denoted by the noun or 
pronoun to which it is joined. 

Ex. — Good pens; red stockings; large boys. 

What is a Participial Adjective? 

A Present or Past Participle expressing , some quality or con- 
dition of the object denoted by the Noun to which it is joined. 
Ex. — A stricken deer; my beloved son; a consuming fire. 

What is a Verbal Adjective? 

An Adjective which expresses a relation or mental operation. 

Ex. — Nearer home; hungry for fruit; A wolf is like a dog. 

What is a Proper Adjective? 

An Adjective derived from a Proper Noun. 

Ex. — An English vessel; A German lady; Alpine snows. 

Select the Adjectives from the following sentences f and tell their 

kind : — 

1. He bought a valuable English watch. 

2. The new hall has a rich gilded ceiling. 

3. Dark clouds were overspreading the beautiful blue sky. 

4. The first three boys are brothers. 

5. A wise son maketh a glad father. 

6. Leave the lily pale, and tinge the violet blue. 



> INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. XXIX 

The Comparison of ADJECTIVES. \\ 14&-151. 

"What is Comparison? 

A change in the form of an Adjective to show the degree of the 
quality which it expresses. 

How many degrees of Comparison are there? 

Three; the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

"When is an Adjective in the Comparative Degree? 

When it shows that a quality in one object is in a higher or lower 
degree than the same quality in another object or class of objects. 

Ex. — John is braver than George; This tree is taller than that. 

When is an Adjective in the Superlative Degree? 

When it shows that a quality in one object is in a higher or lower 
degree than the same quality in anyone of several other objects. 

Ex. — John is the bravest of all the boys 

How is the Comparative Degree formed? 

By suffixing r or er to the Positive, or by placing more or less 
before it. 

How is the Superlative Degree formed? 

By suffixing st or est to the Positive, or by placing most or 
least before it. 
Give examples. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Holy, holier, holiest. 

True, truer, truest. 

Faithful, more faithful, most faithful. 

Learn the following irregular Adjectives : — 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Bad or ill, worse, worst. 

Far, farther, farthest. 

Good, better, best. 

Late, later or latter, latest or last. 

Little, less or lesser, least. 

Many or much, more, most. 

Near, nearer, nearest or next. 

Old, older or elder, oldest or eldest. 

Form the Comparative and Superlative of the following Adjectives : — 

Brave, able, diligent, large, old, much, lovely, bright, active 
and good. 

Select the Adjectives from the following sentences, and tell whether they are 
of the Positive, Comparative or Superlative Degree : — 

1. John is older than Henry. 

2. His younger sister is dead. 

3. James is more intelligent than Frank. 

4. Students should be diligent. 

5. My farm is larger than yours. 

6. It is farther to C iina than to England. 

3-* 



XXX INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 

ADVERBS. 

What is an Adverb ? 

A Word which expresses Place, Time, Cause, Manner, Mo- 
dality or Degree. 

Mention some Adverbs of Place. 

Here, there; hither, thither; hence, thence. 

Mention some Adverbs of Time. 

Then, meanwhile, before, after, always, continually, generally, 

ever, once, often. 

Mention some Adverbs of Cause. 
Why, wherefore. 
Mention some Adverbs of Manner. 
Bravely, well, ill, cleverly, dearly. 
Mention some Adverbs of Modality. 
Yes, verily, no, nay, likely, probably. 
Mention some Adverbs of Degree. 
More, less, somewhat, so, very, too. 
How are Adverbs ending in ly compared? 

By placing more or less, and most or least, before the Simple 
Adverb. 

How are a few other Adverbs compared? 
Irregularly, or by suffixing r or er, and st or est. 
Give examples. 

Positive. Comparative. ' Superlative. 

Bravely, more bravely, most bravely. 

Early, more early, most early. 

Faithfully, less faithfully, least faithfully. 

Gracefully, less gracefully, least gracefully. 

Soon, sooner, soonest. 

Often, oftener, oftenest. 

Compare the following Adverbs : — 

Rapidly, cleverly, slowly, eagerly, miserly, leisurely, tardily, 
wofully, late, well, long. 

Select the Adverbs from the following sentences, and tell their kind: — 

1. John walks slowly and gracefully. 

2. He came here yesterday. 

3. I am always ready to assist you. 

4. He will go there early to-morrow. 

5. He certainly writes very slowly. 

6. The kite rose rapidly, and sailed majestically. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. XXXI 

PREPOSITIONS. 

What is a Preposition? 

A Preposition is a word which shows a relation between things 
and connects the words denoting the things so related. 

Mention the Simple Prepositions. 

At, after, by, down, for, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, 
since, through, till, to, under, up, with. 

Mention the Prepositions beginning with the syllable a. 

Aboard, above, about, across, against, along, amid, amidst, 
among, amongst, around, athwart. 

Mention the Prepositions beginning with the syllable be. 

Before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, be- 
twixt, beyond. 

Mention the Compound Prepositions. 

Into, out of, throughout, toward, towards, upon, until, unto, 
underneath, within, without. 

Mention words which are sometimes used as Prepositions. 

Bating, concerning, during, excepting, notwithstanding, re- 
garding, respecting, touching, except, save. 

Select the Prepositions from the following sentences; — 

1. They went to the city in the cars. 

2. John walked along the road towards the river. 

3. The cars from the West arrive at noon. 

4. The child fell into the well. 

5. The bridge extends from the shore to the island. 

6. Several railroads run through Pennsylvania 

7. The birds sing among the branches. 

8. The bell rang at nine o'clock. 

9. The books are in the library. 

10. Go into the garden and sit under the tree. 

11. There are many apples on the tree behind the houses. 

12. They sat in the parlor after dinner. 

13. Man, through all ages of revolving time, 
Unchanging man, in every varying clime, 
Deems his own land of every land the pride, 
Beloved by Heaven o'er all the world beside; 
His home the spot of Earth supremely blest, 
A dearer, sweeter spot than all the rest. 



XXXU INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 

COWJUtfCTIOtfS. 

What is a Conjunction? 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect or contract clauses. 

How many classes of Conjunctions are there? 

Two; Coordinate and Subordinate. 

How many kinds of Coordinate Conjunctions are there? 

Three; Copulative, Alternative and Adversative. 

Mention the Copulative Conjunctions. 

And; both — and; as well as; not only — but, but also, but 
likewise. - 

Mention the Adversative Conjunctions. 

But; indeed — but; now — then; on the one hand — on the 
other hand. 

Mention the Alternative Conjunctions. 

Or; nor; neither; either — or; neither — -nor. 

How many kinds of Subordinate Conjunctions are there? 

Five; Substantive, Conditional, Concessive, Final and Causal. 

Mention the Substantive Conjunctions. 

That; that not; whether. 

Mention the Conditional Conjunctions. 

If; unless; except; provided that. 

Mention the Concessive Conjunctions. 

Although, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding, though, yet. 

Mention the Final Conjunctions. 

That, that not, lest, in order that, so that, so as. 

Mention the Causal Conjunctions introducing Clauses expressing a 
reason. 

As, because, for, inasmuch as, forasmuch as, since, whereas. 

Mention the Causal Conjunctions introducing Clauses expressing an 
inference. 

Consequently, hence, then, therefore, wherefore, whence. 

Select the Conjunctions from the following sentences^ and tell their 

hind : — 

1. Though I hastened, I could not overtake him. 

2. Speak neither well nor ill of an enemy. 

3. If I be righteous, yet will I not lift up my head. 

4. Let him that standeth take heed lest he fall, 

5. He asked me whether I heard the report. 

6. He is afraid, because he is guilty. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. XXX1I1 

INTERJECTIONS, EXPLETIVES and INTENSIVES. 

What is an Interjection? 

A word which expresses emotion. 

Mention the Interjections denoting attention. 

Behold! hark! hist! hush! hallo! ho! list! lo! and see! 

Mention the Interjections denoting disgust. 

Away ! begone ! fudge ! fie ! pshaw ! tush ! 

Mention the Interjections of salutation or taking leave. 

Welcome ! hail ! adieu ! farewell ! good-by ! 

Mention the Interjections denoting sorrow. 

Ah! alas! alack! oh! 

Mention the Interjections of triumph and wonder. 

Aha! bravo! hurrah! huzza! indeed! strange! what! O(man)! 

What are Expletives? 

Words used for euphony simply. 

Give examples. 

There is a God ; It is true that bs said it. 

What is an Intensive ? 

A word used to express emphasis. 

Give examples. 

I too am a painter ; I only am left to tell thee. 

Select the Interjections, ^Expletives and Intensities from the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 

2. Woe to the riders that trample thee down ! 

3. Hush! hush! the preacher preacheth, 
" Woe ! to the oppressor, woe !" 

4. Hail! Memory hail! in thy exhaustless mine. 

5. Oh ! where shall rest be found? 

6. Alas ! how swift the moments fly ! 

7. Hail, Columbia! happy land! 
Hail, ye heroes! heaven-born band! 

8. There comes a time when the morn shall rise, 
Yet charm no smile to thy filmed eyes. 
There comes a time when thou liest low 
With the roses red on thy frozen brow. 

9. Cos, Ha, ha! how vilely doth this Cynic rhyme! 
Bru. Get you hence, sirrah! saucy fellow, hence! 
Cos. Bear with him, Brutus; 'tis his fashion. 
Bru. I'll know his humor when he knows his time. 
What should the wars do with these jigging fools? 
Companion, hence! 

Cas. Away! away! begone! 



XXXIV INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 

SEtfTEtfCES. 

"What is a sentence? 

A collocation of words expressing something thought, felt or 
willed. 

How many kinds of sentences are there? 

Five; Declarative, Conditional, Interrogative, Exclamative, 
and Imperative. 

"What is a Declarative sentence? 

A collocation of words which assert or deny something. 

Give examples. 

John wrote a letter. Spring has come. He will not go. 

What is a Conditional sentence? 

A collocation of words expressing something conditionally. 

Give examples. 

If I were you, I would go. If thine enemy hunger, feed him. 

What is an Interrogative sentence? 

A collocation of words expressing a question. 

Give examples. 

Does John write ? "Will he not come ? How do you do ? 

"What is an Exclamative sentence? 

A collocation of words used to express emotion. 

Give examples. 

How are the mighty fallen ! "What a genius Shakspeare had ! 

"What is an Imperative sentence. 

A collocation of words expressing what the speaker wills. 

Give examples. 

Thou shalt not hear false witness. Ee careful for nothing. 

Come unto me, all ye that labor. 

Tell which of the following sentences is Declarative, which Conditional, &c. ; 
also, the kind, properties and forms of each word : — 

1. The moon walks forth in her brightness. 

2. How abject is the condition of the miser! 

3. Canst thou by searching find out God ? 

4. If ye be angry, do not sin. 

5. George Peabody was a benevolent man. 

6. Did the wind shake the houses? 

7. How resistlessly the angry flood swept by ! 

8. Studious boys become intelligent men. 

9. The lark has sung his earol in the sky, 

The bees have hummed their noontide lullaby; 
Still in the vale the village-bells ring round, 
Still in the stately hall the jests resound. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. XXXV 

SYNTAX. USES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

What is that part of Grammar which relates to the construction 
of sentences, called? 

Syntax, which treats of the arrangement, agreement and gov- 
ernment of words. 

Of what does Arrangement treat? 

Of the position of words in a sentence. 

What is Agreement? 

The form of one word corresponding to some other word. 

What is Government? 

The power one word has of determining the form of another 
word. 

What are the principal grammatical uses of Nouns and Pronouns? 

Subject, Attribute, Possessive, Complement, Appositive and 
Compellative. 

What does the Subject denote? 

The object about which something is said. 

Give examples. 

John writes ; Mary sings; Charles walks. 

What is the Attributive Noun? 

The noun denoting the substance, class or office of the object 
represented by the subject. 

Give examples. 

The ring is brass; John is a poet; Samuel is chairman. 

What is the Possessive? 

A noun or pronoun denoting something external to the object 
denoted by the noun which it limits. 
Give examples. 

John's hat is torn; Our neighbor's bees have left their hive. 
What is the Complement? 

A noun or pronoun denoting the object of an act or relation. 
Give examples. 

John struck James; They elected him president; He asked 
me a question; Thomas and William ran a race. 

What is an Appositive? 

A noun placed after a noun or pronoun to limit its application. 

Give examples. 

Cicero, a celebrated orator, was a patriot. William, the Con- 
querer, defeated Harold, the Saxon king. 
What is a Compellative? 
A noun or pronoun denoting an object addressed. 

Give examples. 

Friends, Romans, Countrymen, lend me your ears. 
Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you. 



XXXVI INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 

[ J&g=» The bock may now be taken in course, or the teacher may follow the annexed plan, 
assigning the Rules, Models and Exercises indicated by the sections. * = ®H] 

SYNOPSIS OF THE SYNTAX. 

A Noun or Pronoun in the Nominative Case maybe used, — 

1. As the Subject of a Finite Verb (g 126). 

2. As the Attribute after Copulative Verbs (g 157). 

3. Independently, denoting the object addressed (g 438) 

4. Absolutely, with a Participle (g 438). 

A Noun or Pronoun in the Possessive Case may be used, — 

1. To limit the application of the noun following it (g 167). 

2. To denote possession indefinitely (g 162). 

3. As the Subject of a Participle after a Preposition (g 404). 
A noun or Pronoun in the Objective Case may be used, — 

1. To denote the direct object (g 174). 

2. To denote the indirect object (g 174). 

3. To denote the factitive object (g 411). 

4. To denote measure, distance, value, &c. (g 191). 

5. To denote the object of kindred meaning (g 174). 

6. As the Complement of a Preposition (g 207). 

7. As the Complement of a Verbal Adjective (g 210). 

8. As the Subject of a Complementary Infinitive (g 403). 

9. As the Subject of a Complementary Participle (g 405). 
Agreement of Nouns and Pronouns, — 

1. Appositives with a preceding noun or pronoun (g 178). 

2. Pronouns with their antecedents (g 128). 
The Finite Verb agreeing, — 

1. With a Simple Subject (g 127,). 

2. With a Compound Subject (g 385, g 420). 
The Participials referring to a Subject (§ 406). 
Adjeetives may be used, — 

1. To show that a Noun is used indefinitely (g 133). 

2. To point out particular objects (g 136). 

3. To restrict the application of Nouns (g 139). 

4. To form the Predicate (g 159). 

5. To express relation or a mental operation (g 211). 

6. As Complementary Attribute (g411). 

7. As modifiers of certain Verbs (g 416). 
Construction of Adverbs (§§ 186-190). 
Construction of Prepositions (§ 206). 
Construction of Conjunctions (§ 383). 

Construction of Interjections, Expletives, and Inten- 
sives (§ 439). * 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON I. 

General Definitions and Divisions. 

1. English Grammar is the science which treats of 
the laws of English words combined into sentences. 

2. These laws relate to three things, viz. : — 

I. Classification. 
II. Inflection. 
• III. Construction. 

3. Classification is the arranging of words according to 
their essential characteristics. 

4. Inflection is changing the form of a word in order to 

express some grammatical property. 

5. Construction treats of the arrangement, agreement, and 
government of words used to express thought, sentiment or 
volition. 

6. Words are divided into ten classes, called Parts of 
Speech, viz. : — Xouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives, 
Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjec- 
tions, Expletives, and Intensives. 

4 13 



14 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



General Characteristics of the Parts of Speech. 

7. Xonns designate things as wholes or distinct parts; as, 
Tree, hand, finger, sweetness. 

8. Pronouns are universal nouns, capable of representing 
anything and everything of the same nature, or in the same 
relation; as, I write; He hurt His hand; The man WHOM YOU 



saw, was here. 



9. Verns assert; as, John sleeps; Mary is good; Henry 
STRUCK Charles. 

10. Adjectives limit the application of nouns or express 
qualities of objects; as, The man; Each man; Those men; 
Twenty men; Good men. 

11. Adverbs express some circumstance of place, time, 
cause, manner, or degree; as, John went there early; Susan 
writes very rapidly. 

12. Prepositions express relations of things and connect 
the words representing the things so related; as, The book is on 
the table; He went TO town. 

13. Conjunctions are used to connect or contract clauses; 
as, John reads and Mary sings; John AND Mary write. 

14. Interjections express emotions; as, Oh! ah! alas! 

15. Expletives render sentences more euphonious; as, 
There is a God; Though he was rich, YET he becanlt poor. 

16. Intensives express emphasis; as, Verily, verily, / 
say unto you; The moon herself is lost in heaven. 






I. Inflected. 



■ are declined. 



II. BTot Inflected. 



1. Nouns, ) 

2. Pronouns,) 

3. Verbs are conjugated. 

4. Adjectives,") 7 

> are compared. 

5. Adverbs, j 

6. Prepositions, ") _ 

„ _ > Connectives. 

/. Conjunctions, J 

8. Interjections, 1 

9. Expletives, > Particles. 
10. Intensives. ) 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 



LESSON II. 

Species of Nouns. 

17. A Nonn is a word used as the name of what is 
known or thought about ; as, John, boy, army, water., sweet- 
ness, deed. 

Remark 1. — A noun designates a thing as a whole, or as a' distinct 
and separate part of something regarded as an object of thought. 
The noun specifies the object itself, not some of its attributes. 

Remark 2. — A collocation of words sometimes represents a person or 
thing; as, John Quincy Adams; The Philadelphia and Reading Rail 
Road. 

Remark 3. — The term noun includes names, titles, appellations and 
epithets ; as, The Rev. Father Brown, the Author. 

18. There are six kinds of nouns, viz. : — 

1. Proper Iouhs 5 representing individual wholes. 

2. Common Nouns, representing extensive wholes. 

3. Collective Nouns, representing numerical wholes. 

4. Material Nouns, representing spacial wholes. 

5. Abstract Nouns, representing substantial parts. 

6. Verbal Nouns, representing causal parts. 

19. A Proper Noun is a name peculiar to one person, place, 
or thing; as, John, Boston, Electricity. 

Remark. — A proper noun becomes a common noun by having an 
article preposed; as, He is the Cicero of his age; Many a fiery Alp. 

20. A Common Noun represents a class of objects, or any 
individual of the class; as, Boys, a boy ; girls, a girl; books, a 
book. 

Remark. — A common noun representing something personified, or 
having the definite article preposed, becomes a proper noun ; as, War 
has seized his cruel weapons; The Monument ; The Park. 

21. A Collective Noun represents a body of living objects 
or a group of things; as, The army is large; Congress ad- 
journed; The cavalry were routed; Tlie White Mountains. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

22. A Material Noun represents any kind of matter con- 
sidered in the gross and without reference to definite limits ; as, 

Water , wood, foliage, forest. 

Remark. — When material nouns designate not unlimited but limited 
masses of material, they become common nouns, and may be used in 
the plural ; as, The woods about Germantown ; The mineral waters of 
Germany. 

23. An Abstract Noun designates some quality or con- 
dition; as, Truth, sweetness, falsehood, clemency, patriotism, 
polity, thraldom, vicinage, translucency , ornament, adolescence. 

Remark: 1. — When abstract nouns designate not qualities but objects 
possessing those qualities or instances of their display, they become 
common nouns, and are used in the plural; as, The youths of America; 
The mercies of. Go d. 

Remark 2. — Adjectives with the definite article preposed become 
abstract nouns; as, The bitter and the sweet; The sublime and the 
beautiful; The same and the different; The true. 

24. A Verbal None represents the result of an action ; as, 
Deed, growth, flight, bloom, dealing, mission, capture, amend- 
ment. 

Remark 1. — Infinitives and participles are used as the subject or the 
attribute to designate the act itself not its result. 

This, however, is their abnormal use. In complex sentences they 
are used to abridge discourse. 

Remark 2. — When verbal nouns are used to designate classes of 
persons or things, they become common nouns ; as, The congregations 
at Park Street Church ; The good deeds of our ancestors. 

Remark 3. — A noun of any kind may so change its meaning as to 
become a common noun. 



CO 




. & 




Tfo <N 




53 ^ 


< 


£ 2 


© % 








o 




tf 





1. Proper Nouns. Rem. 

2. Common Nouns. Rem. 

3. Collective Nouns. 



*2 % m '4. Material Nouns. Rem. 
© fc I 5. Abstract Nouns. Rem. 1 & 2. 
6. Verbal Nouns. Rem. 1, 2 & 3. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 

LESSON III. 

Properties of Nouns and Pronouns. 

25. The grammatical properties of nouns and pronouns, are, — 

(1.) Person. 
(2 ) 1% umber. 
(3.) Gender. 
(4.) Case. 

26. Person is that property of a noun or pronoun which 
shows the relation of the speaker to the object which the 
said noun or pronoun represents. 

27. There are three persons; the First, the Second, and 
the Third. 

28. A noun or pronoun is of the First person, when it repre- 
sents a person as speaking; as, /, John, did it. 

29. A noun or pronoun is of the Second person when it 
represents the person addressed; as, John, bring me the book; 
You did it. 

30. A noun or pronoun is of the Third person when it rep- 
resents some person or thing spoken of; as, John tore his coat. 

31. The Number of a noun or pronoun is that property which 
relates to the unity or plurality of the objects represented. 

32. There are two numbers; the Singular and the Plural. 

33. A noun or pronoun is of the Singular number, — 

(1.) When it represents but one object; as, A good sol- 
dier obeys. 

(2.) When it represents a collection of objects regarded 
as a whole; as, The army is large. 

34. A noun or pronoun is of the Plural number, — 

(1.) When it represents more than one object; as, Sol- 
diers fight. 

(2.) When it represents a collection of objects consid- 
ered in its parts} as, The COUNCIL were divided in their 
opinions. 4* 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

35. The Gender of a noun or pronoun is that property 
which relates to the sex of the object represented. 

36. There are two sexes; the male and the female: but there 

are three genders, — 

(a.) The Masculine. 

(b.) The Feminine. 

(c.) The Center. 

37. A noun or pronoun is of the Masculine gender, — 

(1.)- When it is the name of a male; as, Boy, man. 

(2.) When it is the name of an object to which mascu- 
line* qualities are attributed ; as, The SUN goes forth in 
HIS strength, 

38. A noun or pronoun is of the Feminine gender, — 

(1.) When it is the name of a female; as, Girl, WOMAN, 
(2.) When it is the name of an object to which feminine*)* 

qualities are attributed; as, The MOON walks forth in 

HER brightness. 

39. A noun or pronoun is of the Neuter gender when it is the 
name of an object that has no sex and to which no sex is at- 
tributed ; as, The tree is old. 

40. Case is that property of a noun or pronoun which 
relates to the form it takes in view of its construction, 

41. There are three cases, — 

(a.) The Nominative. 
(b.) The Possessive, 
(c.) The Objective. 

42. The Nominative case is the form a noun or pronoun 
takes, when it is the subject of a finite verb ; as, Charles reads; 
He writes. 

43. The Possessive case is the form a noun or pronoun 

*Grandeui, roughness, strength, &c. 

f Beauty, delicacy, fecundity, gentleness, &o. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



19 



takes when it is placed before a noun to limit its application ; as, 
His wife; John's book. 

44. The Objective case is the form a noun or pronoun takes 
when it is the complement of a verb or preposition ; as, John 
struck HIM; John fell into the RIVER. 



45. Exercise. 

Select the nouns and pronouns from the following sentence* 
and tell their properties. 

1. Ellen's eyes are blue. 

2. Our neighbor's bees left their hive. 

3. We have cleaned our desks. 

4. I invited him. 

5. Her dress was white and neat. 

6. She has torn her book. 

7. I went down street. 

8. The book lay on the table. 

9. The bridge extends over the river. 

10. I shall return soon. 

11. Several railroads run through Maryland. 

12. John gave his sister a dollar. 



e 

£ 

e 






rl. Person. 



II. Number. 



III. Gender. 



L IV. Case. 



a. First Person. 

b. Second Person. 

c. Third Person. 



a. Singular. -J L'< 

b. Plural. { g;J 

a. Masculine. < L'< 

6. Feminine, -j L'\ 

c. Neuter. 

a. Nominative. 

b. Possessive. 
a Objective. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON IV. 

Modifications of Nouns.— Plural Number. 

46. The form of a noun may be changed to express — 

1. The Plural lumber, 

2. The Feminine Gender, 

3. The Possessive Case. 

47. English nouns are pluralized by suffixing s, es, 
or 's. 

48. Rules for Pluralizing Nouns. 

Rule I. — English nouns are generally pluralized by suffixing s to 
the singular form; as, Boy, boys; troop, troops; money, 
moneys; Mussulman, Mussulmans; talisman, talismans. 

Rule II. — English nouns ending in co (soft), sn, x, z, s, and ss, or 
in i, o, u, or y preceded by a consonant, form the plural 
by suffixing es, the y being changed into i ; as, Church, 
churches; box, boxes; geography, geographies; negro, 
negroes; gnu, gnues. 

Remark. — The following foreign nouns ending in o, preceded by a 
consonant, are pluralized by annexing s, viz : armadillo, canto, cento, 
duodecimo, fandango, fidalgo, fresco, grotto, halo, hidalgo, junto, lasso, 
memento, mestizo, octavo, pampero, piano, portico, pronunciamento, proviso, 
quarto, rotundo, salvo, sirocco, solo, torzo, trillo, tyro, violoncello, zambo, 
zero, &c. 

Also proper names ; as, The Catos, El Dorados, &c. 

Rule III. — Letters, figures, signs, marks, &c, are pluralized by suf- 
fixing 's; as, Dot your i's and stroke your Ps; l 9 s, 
a's, s 9 s 9 +»s, 5 9 s. 

Rule IV. — In compound nouns, the prominent part, or the part 
described by the rest, is pluralized ; as, Cupful, cup- 
fuls; ox-cart, ox-carts; aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp; 
brother-in-law, brothers-in-law. If the parts are equally 
prominent, both words are pluralized ; as, Man-servant, 
men-servants ; knight-templar, knights -templars. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



21 



Remark. — The same principle applies to titles and proper names. 
If we wish to distinguish persons having the same title, we pluralize 
the name; as, The Miss Kinports, the 3Iiss Riglers, the three Mrs Bar- 
lows. If we wish to distinguish persons having the same name, we 
pluralize the title; as, The Misses Strickler, the Messrs. Strickler. 

The title is pluralized if it refers to persons having different names ; 
as, Messrs. Hendricks & diittenden ; th'e Bishops of New York and 
Saint Louis. 

Dead Forms. 

49. The following nouns are pluralized by changing f, ff*e or 
ff into ves, viz. : — 

Sing. Plural. Sing. Plural. 

Beef, beeves. Life, lives. 

Calf, calves. Loaf, loaves. 

Elf, elves. Self, selves. 

Half, halves. 



Sing. 
Wife, 
Wolf, 

Wharf, 



S:aff, 



Plural. 

wives. 

wolves. 

wharfs, 

wharves, 
f staves (sticks), 
( staffs (officers). 



Sheaf, sheaves. 
Knife, knives. Shelf, shelves. 

Leaf, leaves. Thief, thieves. 

Staff always makes staffs in compounds; as, Flagstaff, flag staffs. 

50. Certain nouns are pluralized by a change of vowel, or by 
annexing en, viz. : — 



Sing. 


Plural. 


Sing. 


Plural. 


Sing. 


Plural. 


Child, 


children. 


Louse, 


lice. 


Ox, 


oxen. 


Foot, 


feet. 


Man, 


men. 


Tooth, 


teeth. 


Goose, 


geese. 


Mouse, 


mice. 


Woman, 


women 



Remark. — The word chicken is a plural form used in the singular, 
and is regularly pluralized ; as, chicken, chickens. The word children 
(child + er -f- en) is also a double plural form. 

51. Certain nouns have two forms for the plural, differing in 
signification, viz. : — 

Brother, brothers (same family), 
cows, 

dies (for coining), 
fishes (more than one), 
geniuses (men), 



Cow, 
Die, 

Fish, 

Genius, 

Index, 

Pea, 

Penny, 



brethren (same society). 
kine (poetic use). 
dice (for gaming). 
fish (quantity). 
genii (spirits). 



indexes (tables of contents), indices (exponents). 

peas (more than one), pease (specie). 

pennies (pieces of money), pence (English currency), 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

52. Foreign nouns are pluralized according to the usage of 
the language from which they are adopted. The principal 
methods are — 

1. Change a into se ; as, Fibula, fibula?. 

2. Change a into ata ; as, Miasma, miasmata. 

3. Change us into i ; as, Alumnus, Alumni. 

4. Change um into a ; as, Dafairai, data. 

5. Change on into a ; as, Phenomenon., phonomena. 

6. Change is into es ; as, Axis, axes. 

7. Change is into ides ; as, Chrysalis, chrysalides. 

8. Change x into ces ; as, Calx., calces. 

9. Change ex into ices ; as, Vertex, vertices. 

10. Change © into os ; as, Canto, cantos ; zero, zeros. 

11. Variously pluralized ; as, Beau, beaux; cherub, cherubim; 
genus, genem, &c. 

J$^f For classified list of foreign nouns, see Appendix A. 

Peculiar Forms. 

53. Nouns used in the singular only, viz. : — 

1. The specific names of actions, arts, sciences and substances ; 
as, Business, platinum, molasses, mathematics. 
Remark. — Mathematics, when preceded by the article the, is a 
plural noun; as, The mathematics are more studied now than formerly. 

2. Proper names; as, John, Charles, Henry. 

Remark 1. — When, however, a proper noun is used to denote & family, 
a race, a group, or two or more individuals of the same name or character, 
it is pluralized; as, The Grants and Shermans; The Bahamas; The 
Scipios , The Caesars. 

Remark 2. — Proper names ending in y or ie, are pluralized by suffix- 
ing s; as, Benny, the Benny s ; Bennie, the Bennies. 

3. Abstract nouns ; as, Truth, wisdom. 

Remark. — Abstract nouns are sometimes used to designate particular 
substances or states, in which case they become concrete, and are plu- 
ralized ; as, Truths, youths. 

4. Abstract numbers ; as, Six times five is thirty. 

Remark. — Concrete numbers are plural; as, Six times five apples are 
thirty apples. 

5. The word news. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



23 



54. Nouns used in the plural only. 

1. The names of things consisting of parts, viz.: — 



Annals. 


entrails. 


paraphernalia, statistics. 


Archives. 


goggles. 


pincers. 


stilts. 


Ashes. 


hatches. 


pleiades. 


suds. 


Assets. 


head-quarters. 


regalia. 


thanks. 


Belles-lettres. 


hose. 


riches. 


teens. 


Billiards. 


ides. 


scissors. 


trousers. 


Bitters. 


intestines. 


shears. 


tweezers. 


Bowels. 


lees. 


snuffers. 


victuals. 


Breeches. 


lungs. 


spectacles. 


vitals. 


Clothes. 


rickets. 


tidings. 


withers. 


Hysterics. 


remains. 


tongs. 





2. Words having a different meaning in the plural, viz.: — 



Arms, weapons. 
Colors, banner. 
Compasses, dividers. 
Dividers, an instrument. 
Drawers, an article of clothing. 
Gallowses, suspenders. 
Goods, merchandise. 



grounds, sediment. 
letters, literature. 
manners, behavior. 
morals, morality. 
shambles, meat market. 
spectacles, glasses. 
stays, comets. 
Greens, young leaves for cooking, vespers, an evening hymn.. 

3. The scientific family names of animals and plants; as Mam- 
malia, Linaceoz (flax family), &c. 

4. The words aborigines, antipodes, cattle, literati and wages. 

55. Nouns used in both numbers. 
1/ Those singular in form. 

1. Names of certain animals, viz.: — 

Deer, grouse, salmon, sheep, swine, trout, and vermin. 

2. Names of certain aggregations, viz.: — 

Baggage, brace, couple, dozen, fry, gross, head (cattle), pair, sail 
(ships), score, span, and yoke. 

Remark. — The words million, billion, &c, used as nouns or partitives, 
take s in the plural, but used as adjectives or true numerals they do 
not take s; as, Two million quarters of corn will not feed so many persons 
as four millions; but two millions of pounds sterling, &c. 

11/ Those plural in form, viz.: — 

Amends, apparatus, bellows, alms, corps, gallows, means, oats, 
odds, pains (labor), series, and species. 

Remark. — The word apparatus is sometimes pluralized ; as, An- 
panatuses. 



24 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



56. Exercise. 

1. Form the plurals of the following nouns: — 

Toy, glass, wharf, geography, folio, canto, fife, five, fly, duty, ox, 
box, child, man, 2, +, £, f, s, 7, gi\, index, knight-templar, loaf, 
man-servant, nebula, pence, roof, son-in-law, tooth, unicorn, vortex, 
water, youth, zero, goose-feather, handful, yoke, pair, innuendo, 
hero, virago, million, Miss James. 

Rule I. — Annex s. 
Rule II. — Annex es. Remark. 
Rule III. — Annex 9 s. 
Rule IV. — Compound nouns. Remark. 
I. — Change f, fe, or ff into ves. 
II. — Change vowel sound. Remark. 



fefi m 
rife 





g) 

ri 
< 

OS 

& 
ri 



g 

u 

c 
fe 

III. fc 

85 
9 



9 

S 
IK 



<3 * 

g © III. — Two plurals differing in signification. 



( IV.— Foreign words, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. 
' 1. Specific names. 

2. Proper names. Remark. 

3. Abstract nouns. Remark. 

4. Abstract numbers. Remark. 

5. The word news. 
' 1. Names of things consisting of parts. 

2. Words having different meanings in plural 

3. Scientific family names. 
k 4. Antipodes, aborigines, cattle, literati, wages. 

f 1. Names of certain animals. 
( 2. Certain aggregations. Rem 
£ *, IF. Plural forms. 13 words. Remark. 



fca. 

u 



W S 88 S 



' I r . Sing, forms 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 25 

LESSON V. 
Feminine Gender.— Possessive Case. 

57. The gender of English nouns is determined — 

1. J3j r the nature ©i' tfiie object. 

In common discourse, the names of male objects are masculine : 
of female objects, feminine; of objects without sex, neuter. 

2. By the qualities attributed. 

In poetic and rhetorical language, we often personify abstract 
qualities and inanimate objects, speaking of them as though they 
had life. The names of objects which are conspicuous for the attri- 
butes of imparting, or communicating; which are by nature strong 
and efficacious; which have a claim to some eminence; or which 
are noted for roughness, severity, <fcc, are regarded as masculine. 
On the other hand, the names of objects which are conspicuous for 
the attributes of containing and of bringing forth; which have more 
of the passive than of the active in their nature; which are pecu- 
liarly beautiful or aimable; which are delicate, gentle, gaudy, 
&c, are regarded as feminine. 

3. By an extension of meaning. 

A word used as the name of a species, a condition, or a relation is 
so general in its application as t'> exclude the idea of sex; as, Man 
is mortal; Parents love their children; Poets are born, not made. 

Note L— Many grammarians treat of a common gender, but a little 

reflection will convince any one that common gender is a mere myth. 

Take for example the word parent In the singular this word may be 

either masculine or feminine, but it cannot be both. For instance, if I 

say, "My father is dead. He was a kind, indulgent parent," the word 

parent is masculine; or, if I say, "My mother is dead. I remember 

her as a tender and affectionate parent," the word parent is feminine. 

Generally doubtful gender may be determined by the context; and, 

since, even in the highly inflected languages, there is no separate 

form for a common gender, it is obviously not founded upon any 

linguistic phenomenon. The rule of the English language is. when 

objects of both sexes are represented by the same word, the masculine 

form is preferred, except in a few instances where the female is 

regarded as the type of the species. The words ducks and geese, names 

of the female, frequently refer to both sex<^s. 

Note 2. — Grammar deals only with words combined into sentences, 

and hence the true way to determine the properties of words is not 

by their form, but by their relation to one another. Hence the 
D 5 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sentence, Mary is a poet, may be either correct or incorrect. If we 
include under the term poet all who write poetry, the sentence is 
correct; but if we wish to state that Mary is a lady who writes 
poecry, we should say, Mary is a poetess. 

58. The gender of English nouns is expressed — 

1. By a difference of termination. 

As the English language was moulded under Classic, not Gothic, 
influences, it has borrowed its grammatical processes with regard to 
nouns from the French. The Gothic termination inn or ine is rarely 
formative, while the classic ess and ix are almost universally used. 
Hence, if a new word is needed to express a distinction of sex, a 
masculine or generic term is taken, and ess or ix is annexed ; as, 
Doctor, doctress; poet, poetess; author, authoress; testator, tes- 
tatrix. 

2. By using different words. 

The sex of persons sustaining a natural relation to one another, 
and of familiar animals, whether domestic or wild, is expressed by 
using different words; as, Boy, girl; father, mother; hart, hind; 
youth, MAIDEN. 

3. By affixing a ctistingiiisning word. 

Sometimes a word descriptive of sex is prefixed or suffixed to a 
generic term. This method, however, is to be used very sparingly, 
as it is neither elegant nor expressive. Such words are compound, 
the generic term seeming to be used adjectively; as, Grand-FATRER, 
grand-noTKER; mer-MAN, wer-MAiD; BvcK-rabbit, voF-rahbit. 

Note. — The callings of men and women differ, and hence certain 
nouns lack either the masculine or the feminine form. In the progress 
of society, however, some callings are filled at one time hj one sex, 
and at another time by the opposite one, or by both ; in which case 
a new word must be coined to distinguish the sex, and the law of 
formation becomes an important grammatical question. The three 
methods given above are used differently. The second consists of 
words from various languages adopted into the language, but not 
anglicized. The third method is used for the want of a better mode 
of distinguishing the sex, and is also crude. The first method, which 
is really a living process, may be applied whenever a word is needed 
to distinguish one sex from the other. Hence such expressions as 
male teacher, female teacher; male doctor, female doctor, are incorrect and 
inelegant, while doctress and teachress are expressive, correct and 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 

elegant, and should be used whenever necessity demands it. Lan- 
guage is a matter of art, and the duty of the grammarian is to observe 
closely its analogies and tendencies, so that he may add to its ex- 
pressiveness whenever occasion requires. Some words do not imply 
sex. They are names of species, such as man (mankind, homo in 
Latin, anthropos in Greek, and Mensch in German). These terms are 
generic, but are regarded as masculine for grammatical purposes. 
Jg® 33 For list of words, see Appendix B. 

59. The possessive case of a noun is formed by suffix- 
ing an apostrophe (') or 9 s to the nominative form, viz.:— 

Rale I. — Suffix an apostrophe ( f ) to the nominative of nouns 
other than proper, ending in an s-sound (s, ss, ce or se), 
whether singular or plural; as, For conscience' sake; 
Boys' hats; Misses' gloves; t's' strokes; i's' dots; y's' size. 

Rule II. — Suffix 's to the nominative of nouns other than proper, 
not ending in an s-sound, whether singular or plural; 
as, Man's, men's; child's, children's. 
Rale in. — Suffix 's to all proper nouns, unless they end in the 
sound of eez, ez, irz, or urz ; as, Prentice's poems; 
Burns's poems; Brooks's arithmetic. 

Rale IV.— Suffix an apostrophe ( » ) simply to proper nouns ending 
in the sound of eez, ez, irz, or urz; as, Dayies' Mathe- 
matics ; Sanders' Readers; Lord Berners' Froissart; 
Archimedes' screw ; Moses' anger. 
Remark. — The word Jesus follows this rule; as, Jesus' name. 

Rule V. — If a collocation of words is used to limit the application 
of a noun, the apostrophe ( > ) or *s is suffixed to the last 
word of the expression; as, John the Baptist's head; 
Thomas Jefferson's Works; Mason and Dixon's Line; 
My father-in-LAw' s house; His aid-de-CAMP's horse; The 
Bishop of Landaff's residence; The ruler of the syna- 
gogue's house; Somebody else's book: My life is like 
Harry the Fourth's; Two years and six months' absence. 
Remark 1. — The possessive of abbreviated words is formed by suf- 
fixing the apostrophe (') or 's to the abbreviated form; as, A mo.'s 
interest; six mos.' interest ; 10 cts.' worth. 

Remark 2. — If figures are used in connection with the dollar-mark 
( $ ) to limit the application of a noun, 's should be suffixed to them; 
as, He bought $5000'h worth of goods. 



28 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



60. The Declension of a noun or pronoun is the regular 

arrangement of the forms which it has to express grammatical 

properties. 

Declension of Nouns 

Singular. Plural. 



Nominative. 


Possessive. 


Objective. 


Nominative 


Possessive. Objective. 


Boy 


boy's 


boy 


boys 


boys' boys 


Child 


child's 


child 


children 


children's children 


Fly 


fly's 


% 


flies 


flies' flies 


Fox 


fox's 


fox 


foxes 


foxes' foxes 


Smith 


Smith's 


Smith 


Smiths 


Smiths' Smiths. 


James 


James's 


James. 




(No plural.) 



61. Exercise. 

Tell the gender of the nouns in the following extract: — 
Tell me on what holy ground 
May Domestic Peace be found ? 
Halcyon daughter of the skies 
Far on fearful wing she flies, 
From the pomp of scepter ed state, 
From the rebels noisy hate : 
In a cottage vale she dwells, 
Listening to the Sabbath bells ! 
Give the feminine or masculine corresponding to the words, — - 
Bachelor, belle, doe, earl, lass, niece, son, wizard, nun, swain, 
youth, czar, don, hero, huntress, instructor, teacher, negro. 

f 1 Natural gender. 



S 

e 

u 
08 



I. Gender 



' I. ' How deter 
mined. 



11/ How ex- 
pressed. 



i 2. Poetic gender. 
v. 8. 



II. Possessive Case. 



III. Declension. 



Specific gender. Notes 1 and 2. 

1. Different terminations. 

2. Different words. 

3. Words affixed. 

( 1. Rule I. 

2. Rule II. 

3. Rule III. 

4. Rule IV. 

L 5. Rule V. Remarks 1 and 2. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29 



LESSON VI. 

Personal, Indefinite, Reciprocal, and Partitive Pro- 
nouns. 

62. A Pronoun is a word which represents some per- 
son or thing present to the mind of the person addressed ; 
as, I write; You speak; He comes; It is I. 

Remark 1. — Pronouns are universal nouns. "Only one thing can 
be called the sun; only certain objects are white; but there is nothing 
which may not be I, and you, and it, alternately, as the point from 
which it is viewed changes." 

Remark 2. — By considering such sentences as It is I, I am he, and 
It rains, the true character of the pronoun is elicited. The affrighted 
disciples saw what they thought to be an apparition ; but their Master 
spoke, calming their fears by his well-known tones, asserting that that 
thing which terrified them was himself. So, too, with the words, / am 
he. The Jews had inquired for the Messiah, who answered, / that 
speak to you am he. Every effect must have a cause; and as it is not 
generally known to what to attribute the phenomena of rain, hail, 
snow, &c, we represent that indefinite something by the pronoun it. 

Remark 3. — The word pronoun {pro, for, and nomen, a name) means 
for a noun, and hence a pronoun is defined to be a word used instead 
of a noun. Substitution is not its characteristic quality. The use of a 
word determines the part of speech to which it belongs. Take, for 
instance, the sentences, All men are mortal, and Our all is at stake. 
In the former sentence all is an adjective; in the latter it is called a 
noun ; but as it means the whole or everything, it is a universal noun, or 
pronoun. Such words as somebody, something, everybody, everything, 
nothing, &c, are pronouns in other languages. 

63. There are five classes of pronouns, viz. : — 

I. Personal. 
II. Indefinite. 

III. Reciprocal. 

IV. Partitive. 
V. Conjunctive. 

Remark.— Conjunctive pronouns will be treated in Lesson XXXYI1I. 

5* 



30 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



thy 
thee 



your 
you 



64. A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun which shows 
the relation of an object to the speaker; as, I (the 
teacher) give YOU (the student) it (the book). 

65. There are three kinds of Personal Pronouns, viz. : — 

(a.) Simple, 
(6.) Compound. 
(c.) Adjectival. 

66. A Simple Personal Pronoun is a pronoun which 
shows simply the relation of an object to the speaker; as, 
I wrote; You spoke; He laughs. 

67. Paradigm of Simple Personal Pronouns. 

First Person. Second Person. 

Singular. Plural, Singular, Plural. 

r we thou you or ye 

My our 

Me us 

Third Person 

Singular. 
Masculine* Feminine 

He she 

His her 

Him her 

You, the second person plural, is used, whether one or 
more persons are addressed; as, You are; you were. This is an 
idiom common to the modern languages, French, German, Spanish, &c. 

68. Compound Personal Pronouns restrict the ap- 
plication of the verb to the subject alone. They are used, — 

1. As Intensive© ; as, He told it HIMSELF. 

2. As Reflexives ; as, He hurt himself. 

69. Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by suffixing self 
for the singular and selves for the plural to the possessive 
form of the Simple Personal Pronouns of the first and second per- 
sons, and to the objective form of the third person. 

70. Paradigm of Compound Personal Pronouns. 

First Person. Second Person Third Person. 

Singular. Myself, ourself thyself, yourself himself, herself, itself 
Plural. Ourselves yourselves ' themselves * 



Nominative 

Possessive. 

Objective. 



Nominative. 
Possessive. 
Objective. 
Remark. - 



Plural. 
Xeuter. Any Gender. 

it they 

its their 

it them 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ' 31 

71. An Adjectival Personal Pronoun is a pronoun 
which shows that the object to which it refers is possessed 
by the object which it represents; as, The book is mine. 

Remark 1. — Mine refers to book, and sliows that the object book is 
possessed by the speaker, the person whom mine represents. 

Remark 2. — The Adjectival Personal Pronouns and the possessive 
form of the Personal Pronouns agree in person, number, and gender 
with the word representing the possessor, and not with that repre- 
senting the thing possessed, as the Possessive Pronouns in the Latin, 
Greek, and French languages do. 

72. Paradigm of Adjectival Personal Pronouns. 

First Person. Second Person. Third Person. 

Singula!'. Mine thine his, hers, its 

Plural. Ours yours theirs 

73. An Indefinite Pronoun is a pronoun which does 
not refer to any particular object, but represents a general 
conception ; as, One should not get angry at one's friend. 

74. The Indefinite Pronouns are one y one's-self none, 
and sometimes it and they; as, Hence with your little ONES; 
None named thee but to praise; It rains; They say. 

Remark. — One and they are used like on in French, and man in Ger- 
man, to designate a person or persons indefinitely. 

75. A Reciprocal Pronoun shows that the objects 
which it represents mutually act one upon the other; as, 
Love one another ; James and Henry help each other. 

Remark. — Each other should be used when two persons are spoken 
of; and one another, when more than two are meant. 

76. A Partitive Pronoun represents an object or 
objects in the relation of whole and parts; as, Some of 
them left, but others remained. 

Remark 1. — All Distributives, Definitives, and Restrictives, used abso- 
lutely (that is, without a noun), seem to belong to this class; as, If one 
cannot do it, two can; Virtue and vice are before you; this leads to misery ; 
that, to peace. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 2. — The following words are used as Partitives, viz. : All, 
any, enough, half, third, fourth, §c, mass, more, most, none, part, per 
cent., plenty, portion, proportion, quarter, remainder, remnant, rest, some, 
whole, worth, &c. See Lesson LVL 

77. One, another, and other are declined like nouns, viz. : — 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative. 


One 


ones 


another 


other 


others 


Possessive. 


One's 


ones' 


another's 


other's 


others' 


Objective. 


One 


ones 


another 


other 


others 






78* Exercise. 







Select the Pronouns from the following sentences, and tell the 
species and properties of each : — 

1. If we would improve our minds by conversation, it is a 
great happiness to he acquainted with persons wiser than our- 
selves. 

2. It is a piece of useful advice, therefore, to get the favor 
of their conversation frequently; but, if they are reserved, we 
should use all obliging methods to draw out of them what may 
increase our own knowledge. 

3. The book is not mine, and I cannot lend it. 

4. They fled, some, one way; others, another. 

5. They say he is a man who minds his own business. 
6- One sows; another reaps. 

7. His neighbors lost all their property. 

8. John lost his book and her slate. 

9. Fear not; it is I. 

10. It rains; it snows; it hails; it freezes. 

11. My horse tore his gears. 

J2. One might lose himself in the woods. 

' 1. Simple, faradigm. 



CO 

g* 

gi 



I. Personal. \ 2. Compound. Paradigm. 
[ 3. Adjectival. Paradigm. 
II. Indefinite Pronouns. Remark. 

III. Reciprocal Pronouns. Remark.. 

IV. Partitive Pronouns* Remarks 1, 2 & 3. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 38 

LESSON VIL 
The Verb.— Kinds.— Conjugations,— Yokes. 

79. A Verl> is a word or collocation of words which 
expresses affirmation; as, John reads; The work should 

HAVE BEEN FINISHED. 

80. The principal kinds of verbs are, — 

1. Intransitive, 

2. Copulative, 

3. Transitive. 

81. An Intransitive verb asserts that the object repre- 
sented by its subject acts in a general way, is susceptible 
of being acted upon, or is in a certain state; as, John 
whites; The coat wears well; God is. 

82. A 'Copulative verb asserts the inherence of an 
attribute in the object represented by its subject; as, John 
is good. 

83. A Transitive verb asserts an activity which affects 
or causes the object represented by its. complement; as, 
John struck James; Samuel writes letters. 

Remark. — The act designated by the word struck affects the person 
represented by the word James. The act designated by the word 
writes produces the thing represented by the word letters. 

84. Verbs have six properties, viz. : Conjugation, Voice, 
Mode, Tense, Form, and Agreement in person and num- 
her. 

85. Conjugation is the inflection of a verb in order to form its 
Preterite and Past Participle. There are two Conjugations; The 
strong and the weak. 

86. A Verb of the Strong Conjugation forms its preterite by 
changing or shortening its vowel sound, and annexes n or en to the 
present or preterite to form its past participle; as, Blow, blew 
blown; break, broke, broken. 



34 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



87. A verb of the Weak Conjugation forms its preterite and 
past participle by retaining, shortening, or changing its vowel sound 
and suffixing t 9 d, or ed; as, Cry, cried; bend, bent; add, added; 
feel, felt; sell, sold; seek, sought 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS, 



STRONG CONJUGATION. 




WEAK 


CONJUGATION. 


Present. 


Preterite. 


Past Participle. 


Present. 


Pret. dc P. P. 


Be 


was 


been 


Bend 


bent 


Become 


became 


become 


Buy 


. bought 


Bite 


bit 


bitten 


Dance 


danced 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Expel 


expelled 


Do 


did 


done 


Hurt 


hurt 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Instruct 


instructed 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 


Jump 


jumped 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Learn 


learned 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Love 


loved 


Go 


went 


gone 


March 


marched 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Roar 


roared 


Know 


knew 


known 


Sell 


sold 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Sleep 


slept 


Run 


ran 


run 


Smile 


smiled 


See 


saw 


seen 


Soar 


soared 


Sing 


sang 


sung 


Study 


studied 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Teach 


taught 


Swim 


swam 


swum 


Toss 


tossed 


Write 


wrote 


written 


Walk 


walked 



88. Voice is the relation of the action expressed by a 
Transitive Verb to the object represented by its subject. 

89. There are two voices; the Active and the Passive, 

90. A Transitive Verb is in the Active voice, when the 
action which it expresses originates in the object represented by 
its subject; as, John strikes William; Mary writes a letter. 

91. A Transitive Verb is in the Passive voice, when the 
object represented by its subject is the recipient or the effect 
of the action expressed by the verb; as, John is loved; The 
house is built. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



35 



92. Exercise. 

Select the verbs from the following sentences, and tell their kind, 



conjugation, and voice: — 

1. Boys eat apples. 

2. The birds flew away. 

3. They saw him. 

4. He was seen. 

5. Jane knew her lesson. 

6. The boy was not known. 

7. The sun was risen. 

8. They wrote letters. 

9. The letters were written. 
10. He broke his arm. 



11. He was expelled. 

12. John tossed his ball. 

13. I was insulted. 

14. The boughs are bent. 

15. He hurt his foot. 

16. He sold his horse. 

17. I bought a slate. 

18. He learns his lesson. 

19. John runs. 

20. Mary sings. 



I. Kinds. 



» \ II. Conjugations. 



III. Voices. 



1. Intransitive, 

2. Copulative, 

3. Transitive. 



v, 



The Strong, 
The Weak. 



f 1. The Active, 
| 2. The Passive, 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON VIII. 
Mode, Tense, Form, and Agreement. 

93. There are three modes, viz.: — The Indicative, the 
Subjunctive, and the Imperative. 

94. The Mode generally used is the Indicative, which 

asserts an attribute as a reality ; as, John weites. 

95. There are six Tenses, viz. : — The Present, The Future, 
The Past, The Present Perfect, The Past Perfect, and 
The Future Perfect. 

96. The Present tense asserts something as going on in 
present time ; as, John writes. 

97. The Future tense asserts something as going to take 
place; as, John will write. 

98. The Past tense has two uses: — 

1. A definite use, asserting something as taking place at 

some specified past time; as, /was writing yester- 
day. 

2. An indefinite use, asserting something as past, but in- 

definite; as, John WROTE. 

99. The Present Perfect tense asserts something as com- 
pleted in present time ; as, / have written. 

100. The Past Perfect tense asserts something as com- 
pleted in past time; as, /had written. 

101. The Future Perfect tense asserts something as com- 
pleted prior to some specified future time; as, I shall have 
written. 

102. The forms commonly used are the Common, the 
Progressive, and the Passive. 

103. Verbs have three persons and two numbers, which are deter* 
mined by the same properties of the subject. The third person sin^ 
gular of the Present Indicative differs from the other forms by 
having an s suffixed; as, John writes; He loves. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 37 

104. Paradigm of the verbs Have and Be in the In- 
dicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 





Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


1st Pers. 


I have, 


We have. 


I am, 


We are. 


2d Pers. 


You have, 


You have. 


You are, 


You are. 


Sd Pers. 


He has, 


They have. 


He is, 


They are. 



Fntnre Tense. 

1st Pers. I shall have, We shall have. I shall be, We shall be. 

2d Pers. You will have, You will have. You will be, You will be. 

Sd Pers. He will have, They will have. He will be, They will be. 



Past Tense. 



1st Pers. 


I had, 


We had. 


I was, 


We were. 


2d Pers. 


You had, 


You had. 


You were, 


You were. 


Sd Pers. 


He had, 


They had. 


He was, 


They were. 



Present perfect Tense. 

1st Pers. I have had, We have bad. I have been, We have been. 

2d Pers. You have had, You have had. You have been, You have been. 

Sd Pers. He has had, They have had. He has been, They have been. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

1st Pers. I had had, We had had. I had been. We had been. 

2d Pers. You had had, You had had. You had been, You had been. 

3d Pers. He had had, They had had. He had been, They had been. 



Futnre Perfect. 

1st P. I shall have had, We shall have had. I shall have been, We shall have been. 

2d P You will have had, You will have had. You will have been, You will have been. 

3d P. He will have had, They will have bad. He will have been, They will have been. 

6 



38 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



105. Paradigm of the verb Strike in the Indicative 
Mode. 



Present Tense, 



1st per. Sing. 
2d per. Sing. 
3d per. Sing. 
1st per. Plur, 
2d per. Plur. 
3d per. Plur. 



Common Form. 
I strike. 
You strike. 
He strikes. 
. We strike. 
You strike. 
They strike. 



Progressive Form. 
I am striking. 
You are striking. 
He is striking. 
We are striking. 
You are striking. 
They are striking. 



Passive Form. 
I am struck. 
You are struck. 
He is struck. 
We are struck. 
You are struck. 
They are struck. 



Fnture Tense, 



1st per. Sing. I shall strike. 
2d per. Sing. You will strike. 
3d per. Sing. He will strike. 
1st per. Plur. We shall strike. 
2d per. Plur. You will strike. 



I shall be striking. 
You will be striking. 
He will be striking. 
We shall be striking. 
You will be striking. 



3d per. Plur. They will strike. They will be striking. 



I shall be struck. 
You will be struck. 
He will be struck. 
We shall be struck. 
You will be struck. 
They will be struck. 



Past Tense. 



1st per. Sing. I struck. 
2d per. Sing. You struck. 
3d per. Sing. He struck. 
1st per. Plur. We struck. 
2d per. Plur. You struck. 
3d per. Plur. They struck. 



I was striking. 
You were striking. 
He was striking. 
We were striking. 
You were striking. 
They were striking. 



I was struck. 
You were struck. 
He was struck. 
We were struck. 
You were struck. 
They were struck. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



1st per. Sing. 
2d per. Sing. 
3d per. Sing. 
1st per. Plur. 
M per. Plur. 
3d per. Plur. 



I have struck. 
You have struck. 
He has struck. 
We have struck. 
You have struck. 
They have struck. 



I have been striking. 
You have been striking. 
He has been striking. 
We have been striking. 
You have been striking. 
They have been striking. 



I have been struck. 
You have been struck. 
He has been struck. 
We have been struck. 
You have been struck. 
They have been struck. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



39 



Common Form. 
1st p. S. I had struck. 
2d p. S. You had struck. 
3d p. S. He had struck. 
1st p. P. We had struck. 
2d p. P. You had struck. 
3d p. P. They had struck. 



Past perfect Tense, 

Progressive Form. 
I had been striking. 
You had been sticking. 
He had been striking. 
We had been striking. 
You had been striking. 
They had been striking. 



Passive Form. 
I had been struck. 
You had been struck. 
He had been struck. 
"We had been struck. 
You had been struck. 
They had been struck. 



Future Perfect Tense, 



1st p. S. I shall have struck. 
2d p. S. You will have struck. 
3d p. S. He will have struck. 
1st p. P. We shall have struck. 
2d p. P. You will have struck. 



I shall have been striking. I shall have been struck. 
You will have been striking. You will have been struck. 
He will have been striking. He will have been struck. 
We shall have been striking. We shall have been struck. 
You will have been striking. You will have been struck. 



3d p. P. They will have struck. They will have been striking. They will have been struck. 

106. Exercise. 

Select the verbs from the following sentences, and tell their hind, 
conjugation, voice, mode, tense, form, and, person and number: — 

1. I shall have loved. 8. We were singing. 

2. Mary was instructed. 9. You were taught. 

3. Jane had gone. 10. They will have loved. 

4. Henry was writing. 11. She had written. 

5. James will be here. 12. I am writing. 

6. Charles wrote. 13. They sold peaches. 

7. William studies. 14. We have loved. 



Conjugate each of the verbs in this exercise. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON IX. 

Proposition. Simple Elements. 

107. A Proposition is a judgment expressed in words. 

It consists of, — 

(1.) Subject, and 
(2.) Predicate. 

108. The Subject is a word or collocation of words 
representing that of which something is affirmed; as, 
John writes. 

Remark. — The subject answers the question who or what before the 
verb ; as,- Who write*.? John. 

109. The Predicate is that word or collocation of 
words which affirms something of that which the subject 
represents; as, John writes; James is A studious boy. 

Remark. — Writes and is a studious boy are predicates. 

110. The Predicate sometimes consists of, — 

(1.) Copula, and 
(2.) Attribute. 

111. The Copula is that word by which something is 
affirmed of the object represented by the subject; as, John 
IS good. 

Remark. — Here is is the copula. 

112. The Attribute is a word or collocation of words 
expressing that which is affirmed of what the subject 
represents ; as, John is A man ; John is A good boy. 

Remark 1. — Here a man and a good boy are attributes. 
Remark 2. — The Subject and Predicate are termed Principal Ele- 
ments* 

113. Any word or col Volition of words answering the 
questions of what land? how many? or whose f is anM- 
jeetive Element; as, My two good dogs run. 

Remark. — Here my answers the question whose? two, the question 
how m-anyf and good, the question of what kind? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 

114. Any word or collocation of words answering the 
questions what? or whom? after the verb, is an Objective 
Element; as, William struck Harry; James studies 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Remark. — Harry answers the question whom? and geography, the 
question what? 

115. Any word or collocation of words answering the 
questions where? when? why? or how? is an Adverbial 
Element; as, Percy went there hastily yesterday 
on account of sickness. 

Remark 1. — There answers the question where? hastily, the ques- 
tion how? yesterday, the question when? and on account of sick- 
ness, the question why? 

Remark 2. — The Adjective Element, the Objective Element, and the 
Adverbial Element are termed Subordinate Elements. 

116. Subordinate Elements are further subdivided, — 

If. As to Class, into, — 

1. First Class, consisting of a word. 

2. Second Class, consisting of a preposition and its 

complement; as, The booh is on the table. 

3. Third Class, consisting of a clause, viz. : a con- 

nective, a subject, and a predicate; as. That the 
EARTH TURNS ON ITS AXIS, is easily proved. 
IF. As to Form, into, — 

1. Simple, consisting of but one word. 

2. Complex, consisting of a word modified by one or 
more words; as, A good boy is studious. 

Remark. — Boy is modified by a and good, and a good boy is, there- 
fore, complex. 

3. Compound, consisting of two or move words con- 

nected by and, or, &c; as, Good and wise men. 

Remark. — Good and wise is a Compound Adjective Element of the 
first class. 

4. Compound and Complex, having the connected 

words modified; as, Five men and THREE children, 
E 6* 



42 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



117. A Proposition is simple, if it consists of but one 
subject and one predicate. 

118. A Proposition is Categorical, if it affirms or 
denies a thing absolutely. 

119. The Subject, Predicate, Copula or Attribute is 
Complex, if its principal word is modified by a subordi- 
nate element. 

120. The Subject, Predicate, Copula or Attribute is 
Compound, if its principal words are connected by and, 
or, but, «&c. 



121. Exercise. 

Select the elements from the following sentences, and tell their 
office, class, and form. 

1. Ambitious men often deceive themselves. 

2. The birds devour the cherries greedily. 

3. My youngest child is a girl. 

4. Silvery clouds fringed the horizon. 

5. The last squadron arrived early this morning. 

6. Constant occupation prevents temptation. 

( 1. Subject. 
I'. Office. \ r. ^ ,. . f«- Copula. 



89 

s 

•m 



^ a 



« 



II'. Form. 



I'. Office. 



II'. Class. 



Ill' 



Form, 



III. Propositions? 



2. Predicate. 

(b. Attribute, 

2. Complex. 

3. Compound. 
Adjective Element. 
Objective Element. 
Adverbial Element. 
1st Class— Word. 
2d Class — Phrase. 

3. 3d Class — Clause. 

1. Simple. 

2. Complex | Abria d< 

3. Compound. J 

4. Complex and Compound, 
( 1. Simple. 

I 2. Categorical. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 43 

LESSON X. 
Analysis and Parsing. Subject Finite Yerb. Pronoun. 

122. An Intransitive Verb asserts that the object 
represented by its subject acts in a general way, is sus- 
ceptible of being acted upon, or is in a certain state (§ 81). 

123. Every sentence should be subjected to two processes, 
viz : 

(1.) It should be resolved into its constituent elements, and 

(2.) The natural connection between the words used and the 
ideas expressed by them should be carefully pointed out. 
The former process is termed analysis; the latter, 
parsing. 

124. Analysis consists in resolving a sentence into its 
constituent elements. 

125. Parsing consists in naming the species, properties, 
use, and construction of a word, pointing out its relation, 
agreement or dependence and consequent form, and in 
giving the rule or rules relating to the same. 

126. As case is the form a word takes in view of its con- 
struction (See § 40), and as the subject of a finite verb is 
invariably in the nominative case, we infer 

Rtrr,E I. 

The SUBJECT of a finite verb must be in the nominative 
case; as, I write; THOU writest ; he writes ; the boys write. 

FORMULA I. 

Species? Person? dumber? Gender? Construction? 
Case? Rule I. 

127. Since the form of the finite verb varies with the person and 
number of its subject, requiring a corresponding form, we infer 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE II. 

The FINITE verb must agree with its SUBJECT in PERSON and 
NUMBER ; as, I SING, thou SINGEST, he SINGS, they SING, John 
and Mary SING. 

FORMULA II. 

Species? Principal Parts ? Conjugation? Mode? 
Tense? Form? Agreement in Person and Number? 
Rule II. 

128. Since pronouns have the same grammatical properties and 
construction as nouns, and always relate to some object present to 
the mind of the reader or auditor, varying in person, number and 
gender as the name of that object varies, we infer 

RULE III. 

The pronoun must be in the same person, number, and 
gender as the name of the object which it represents; as, He 
gave his book to her. 

FORMULA III. 

Species? Person, Number and Gender? Relates 
to what? Agreement? Rule III. Construction? Case? 
Rule? 

129. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

(1.) Charles runs. 
Analysis. 

Charles runs is a simple categorical proposition, of which Charles 
is the subject and runs, the predicate. 

Parsing. 

Charles is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, and is construed as the subject of runs, and 
must therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule I: 
The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

Runs is an intransitive verb, principal parts, run, ran, run, of the 
strong conjugation, indicative mode, present tense, common 
form, and in the third person, singular number, to agree with 
its subject Charles, according to Rule II: The finite verb must 
agree xoith its subject in person and number. 



English Grammar. 45 

(2.) He writes. 

Analysis. 

He writes is a simple categorical proposition, of which he is the 
subject and writes, the predicate. 

Parsing. 

He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular num 
ber, masculine gender, to agree with the name of an object 
present to the mind, according to Rule III: The pronoun must 
be in the same person, number and gender as the name of the object 
which it represents. It is construed as the subject of writes, and 
must therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule I. 
The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

Model for Indicating Analysis and Parsing. 

1 1, 3 

f Charles f He 

j i J i 

v Runs v. writes. 



Note. — According to this method, the subject and predicate are 
written the one above the other, and words, phrases or clauses, used as 
modifiers, are written after the words which they modify. The number 
of the rules of construction is indicated by figures written above. Other 
methods of indicating analysis and parsing will be given hereafter. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

3. I sleep. 8. Clara dances. 13. Armies march. 

4. James walks. 9. You smile. 14. We will go. 

5. William jumps. 10. They wink. 15. Birds fly. 

6. Thou risest. 11. John swims. 16. Lions roar. 

7. Mary sits. 12. Henry sleeps. 17. Eagles soar. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Me walks. 6. He smile. 11. Lion's roars. 

2. James runned. 7. We dances. 12. Potatoes grows. 

3. William jump. 8. Armies marches. 13. You sits. 

4. You was. 9. He sot. 14. Men walks. 

5. We was. 10. Birds flies. 15. Boys writeth. 



46 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Model for Correcting False Syntax. 

1. Me walks. Me is used as the subject of the verb, and must there- 
fore be changed to I, according to Rule I: The subject of a finite verb 
must be in the nominative case. Walks must agree with its subject I 
in person and number, and must therefore be changed to walk, accord- 
ing to Rule II : The finite verb must agree with its subject in person and 
number. 

IV. Exercise in Composition. 

Write ten sentences, each containing an intransitive verb and a 
subject. 

Direction I. Commence each sentence with a capital letter and put 
a period after the verb. 

Model. I ran. Kivers flow. 

Remark. — It would be a profitable exercise to require the sentences 
thus written to be expanded by putting the verb into the different 
modes, tenses and forms. The intelligent teacher can vary this part 
of the exercise to suit the time, advancement and capacity of each 
member of his class. 



P 

c 



r I. Processes. 



{ 



II. Rules and 
Formulas. 



1. Analysis. 

2. Parsing. 

1. Subject of Finite Verb. Rule I. 

2. Agreement " " Rule II 

3. " of Pronoun. Rule IIL 
1. Analysis. 

c III. Models. -J 2. Parsing. 

h 3. False Syntax. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 



LESSON XI. 

Classification and Uses of Adjectives. Distributives. 

130. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun to limit 

its application, or to describe the object which a noun or 

pronoun represents; as, Ten men; Good men; Wise 

men. 

Remark. — Sometimes a collocation of words is used adjectively; as, 
Philadelphia and Reading Rail Road Depot; One thousand, two 

HUNDRED AND SIXTY-SEVEN years. 

131. A Common noun maybe used in a General, a Particular, 
or a Partitive sense. 

1. It is used in a General sense when it represents all or any 

of a class of objects; as, Hike books; Boys are playful. 

2. It is used in a Particular sense when it represents some par- 

ticular object or objects; as, I like the books; The boys 
are playful. 

3. It is used in a Partitive sense, when it represents only a part 

of a class of objects, or part of a mass; as, / like some 
books; I drink water; He eats bread. 

132. Adjectives have three uses, viz. : A Distributive, 
a Definitive, and a Restrictive. 

1. A Distributive shows that the noun to which it is 

joined, is taken in a general or indefinite sense; as, A man; 
All men ; Any man; Every man. 

2. A Definitive shows that the noun to which it is joined, 
represents some particular object or objects; as, This book; 
That pen. 

3. A Restrictive limits the application of the noun to 
which it is joined in regard to the age, color, condition, habit, 
number, place, possession, quality, quantity, shape, size, tempera- 
ture, time, weight, &c. of an object; as, An old man; Twenty 
pens; An English frigate. m 



4S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

133. ^Distributives include the following words:- — 

1. The Indefinite Article » or »n> showing that the word to 
which it is joined, designates an object indefinitely, or as belonging 
to a certain class; as, He gave me a book; John is a boy ; What kind 
of an apple is it? He acted as a kind of sentinel; Twice a day ; Six 
cents a week; The sea is of a silvery purple. 

Remark 1. — The Indefinite Article should not be used with a word 
expressing substance or 'office, or with a word modified by another dis- 
tributive, and not more than once in the same expression; as, Half as 
hour, or a half hour, but not a half an hour ; Use the gargle every half 
hour, not every half an hour ; What sort of wood, not what sort of a 
wood. 

Remark 2. — A in such sentences as Two dollars a dag, means for each 
or any day, and is used like the Latin per in per annum, per capita, 
per centum, per diem, per se, &c. Per should never be used before an 
English noun, unless it means the agent through whom something is 
done; as, J. A. Bancroft $ Co., per John Smith. 

Remark 3. — An is used before words beginning with a vowel, or with 
silent h, or before an unaccented syllable beginning with h ; as, An old 
man; An honest boy ; An horizon, a horizontal line; a hero, an heroic action. 

Remark 4. — When several adjectives are construed with the same 
word, but refer to different objects, the article must be repeated with 
each of them; as, A red and a white flag, that is, a red flag and a white 
flag, two different flags being meant. A red and' white flag would mean 
one object of different colors. 

Remark 5. — All pronouns and verbs agreeing with a noun modified 
by a or an, each, every, either, neither, this, that, one, another, 
and the cardinal number one, must be in the singular number; as, 
Every man to his te r it, Israel! On either side of the river. « 

2. The Definite Article the, showing that the noun to which it 
is joined, is used to represent all of a certain class ; as, The rich 
man is happy; The Elephant; The Dance; The Stage. 

Remark. — This generalizing use of the should be carefully distin- 
g jished from its definitive use. 

3. All, any, each, every, and no (Pronominals). 

a. All is collective, and shows that the noun to which it is 

joined represents persons or things taken together; as, All 
my books are lost. 

b. Any is indefinite, and shows that the noun to which it is 

joined represents a single one of a class, or part of a mass 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 

of things; as. If ye have aught against any man; Have 
you any bread? 

c. Each relates to two or more, and shows that the noun to 

which it is joined represents a certain number of a class 
of objects taken separately ; as, Thou couldst double each 
joy; Each student prepares his own lesson. 

d. Every relates to several, and shows that the noun to which 

it is joined represents all of a class of objects taken 
singly ; as, In every period of life. 

From every stormy wind that blows, 

From every swelling tide of woes. 

e. No is used to show that all that the noun represents is ex- 

cluded ; as, No man gave unto me. 

134. Exercise. 

Select the adjectives from the following sentences, tell their sjpe^ 
cies and use y and cowed the False Syntax: — 

1. We went to Boston partly per steamer and partly per the cars. 

2. He keeps a hotel. 

3. Flour is worth ten dollars per barrel. 

4. I did not think you to be such an one. 

5. Corn is seventy cents per bushel. 

6. It brought forth an hundred-fold. 

7. She receives three dollars per week. 



8. 


Read a half a line. 


9. 


The deer was a half a mile off. 


10. 


I waited a half an hour. 


11. 
12. 


Every such an act is disreputable. 

Every student must furnish his own room. 


• 


( 1. General. 


I. Usesof Nonns. 1 2. Particular. 
1 3. Partitive. 


2 » 


( 1. Distributive. 

IITrs t Tv^ Adfe€ i 2 - Definitive - 

l 3. Restrictive. 


4 


f 1. The Indefinite Article. Rem. 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5. 
. Ill, Distributives. 1 2. The Definite Article. Remark. 


-. 


( 3. Pronominals, All, any, each, every, and No. 
7 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XII. 

Uses of Definitives. 

135. A ^Definitive shows that the noun to which it 
is joined, represents some particular object or objects. 

136. Definitives' include the following words : — 

1. The Definite Article the, showing that the noun to which 
it is joined, represents a previously mentioned or well-known 
object; as, The man is sick; The horses ran away; The old oak was 
blown down. 

Remark 1. — A plural noun used as the subject should not be pre- 
ceded by the Definite Article the, unless there be a subsequent enume- 
ration of the things referred to, or the words be used to contrast 
objects; as, The common nouns Boy awe? Girl; The men are robust, but 
the women are delicate. But we say, Common nouns are names of classes. 

Remark 2.— If two or more adjectives are connected by a conjunction 
and refer to the same object, the articles a, an, or the should not be 
repeated; as, The wise and good man, but The true, the noble, the 
patriotic Lincoln. 

Remark 8.— Theis sometimes erroneously used for a. Unless the sin- 
gular noun to which the is joined denotes a particular object, the in- 
definite article a or an must be used ; A verb is a word ivhich affirms, not 
The verb, &c. But, The verb writes is singular. 

2. The Demonstratives, viz. : — 

a. This, these, and ttie latter are joined to nouns represent- 

ing objects near the speaker; as, This book; These pic- 
tures. 

b. That, those, the former, yon or yonder, are joined to 

nouns representing objects remote from the speaker; as, 
That book; Yon field. 
Remark. — Yon and yonder refer to objects in sight of the speaker,, 

c. The same and very, are joined to nouns representing ob- 

jects identical with something previously known or men- 
tioned; as, The same book that Host; The very thing that 
I wanted. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 

d. Such is joined to a noun representing objects of a kind 

previously known or mentioned ; as, I never before saw 

such fine fruit. 
Remark. — When such refers to a word representing a single thing, 
it must be followed by the indefinite article a or an; as, Such an hour; 
Such a thing. 

e. The one — the other; one — the other, which are used when 

two objects only are spoken of; as, Two men went up into 
the temple to pray : the one, apharisee; the other, a pub- 
lican. But if one refers to either of the two, it is not pre- 
ceded by the article; as, One man furnishes the capital and 
the other carries on the business, 

f. Either, neither, both, whichever, and whichsoever should 

be used only when two objects are spoken of. Either and 
whichever or whichsoever mean one or the other ; neither 
means, not one or the other, and both means the one 
and the other; as, Either of the two; neither of the 
two; both of the two; and whichever of the two. 

g. One — another; some — other are used without the- article 

when three or more objects are spoken of; as, Some men do 
one thing ; other men, another thing. 
h. One, none, whatever or whatsoever, and not are used when 
three or more objects are spoken of. One means one of three 
or more; none means not one of three or more, and whatever 
or whatsoever means one or another ; not means not one 
or another ; as, Take one of the five apples : None of the 
three; Whatever book you wish; Not James, or Charles , or 
Henry. 

Remark. — Bfot, never, &c, are followed by or, if the force of the 
negative passes over to the next member of the sentence; as, — 

Seasons return ; but not to me returns 
Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, 
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. 

But if the second member is not affected by the negative, or if that 
part of the first member which is made negative is not a part of the 
next member, nor must be used ; as, The Biscay an was in no sense the 
countryman of the Valencian, nor the Lombard of the Biscayan, NOR the 
Fleming of the Lombard, nor the Sicilian of the Fleming. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Which and what (Interrogative Adjectives). 

Which* inquires for particular objects, and what, for objects 
not definitely referred to; as, Which booh have you? Ans. The 
larger one. What book have you f Ans. Ccesar. 

137. Exercise. 

Select the adjectives from the following sentences, tell their 
species and use, and correct the False Syntax: — 

1. The possessive pronouns do not always denote possession. 

2. The possessive pronouns are mine, thine, &c. 

3. The relative pronouns partake of the nature of the conjunction. 

4. The mules and the horses are useful animals. 

5. The gilded and the hollow pretext is prominent. 

6. Compound personal pronouns are myself thyself, himself, &c. 

7. The biggest, the ugliest, the blackest, and the most uncouth 

negro you ever saw. 

8. The subject of the finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

9. Providence is the semi-capital of Rhode Island. 

10. The compound personal pronouns are sometimes used as the 

subject of a proposition. 

11. Conjunctions connect either words, phrases, or clauses. 

12. No further seek his merits to disclose, 

Or draw his frailties from their dread abode. 

1. The Definite Article the. Remarks 1, 2, and 3. 

a. This, these, the latter. 

b. That, those, the former, yon, yonder. Rem. 

c. The same, very. 

d. Such. Remark. 

e. The one — the other; one — the other. 

2. Demonstrative, \ f Eithei% ne ither, both, whichever or which- 
soever. 

g. One — another; some — other. 
h. One, none, whatever or whatsoever, not. 
Remark. 
The Interrogative Adjectives which and what. 

* Which is derived from who and each. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 53 

LESSON XIII. 

Uses of Restrictives. 

138. A Restrictive limits the application of the 
noun to which it is joined in regard to the age, color, con- 
dition, habit, number, place, possession, quality, quantity, 
shape, size, temperature, time, or weight of an object. 

139. Restrictives include the following words : — 

1. The Pronouns mine, ours; thine, yours ; his, hers, its, theirs. 
Remark 1. — These words denote possession, not as cases, but as 

possessives. Their person, number, and gender depend upon the object 
or objects which they represent, but they are without case, being con- 
strued as adjectives joined to the noun representing the object pos- 
sessed. 

Remark 2. — The possessive case of a personal pronoun followed by 
own, is nearly equivalent to mine, thine, &c. ; as, The book vjas my own. 

Remark 3 — In Scriptural or poetic style, mine and thine are used 
instead of my or thy before words commencing with a vowel or an h- 
mute; as, Mine ama; Thine altars. 

2. JVonns and Pronouns. 

When a noun or pronoun is placed before a noun to limit its ap- 
plication, it must be in the possessive case; as, A thousand pounds' 
weight ; Five hundred tons' burden. But if one noun is placed 
before another to describe an object, it becomes a qualifying 
adjective, retaining its singular form: as, An iron ring; A seven- 
day journey ; A ten-TOOT pole; The $30* bounty ; The three hundred* 
dollar bounty ; The Lebanon Valley Bail Road Depot. 

3. Proper Adjectives. 

Proper Adjectives are derived from proper nouns, and restrict as 
to some particular trait; as, French books; An English vessel; An 
American soldier. Whenever Proper Adjectives are used to desig- 
nate a quality, they become qualifying adjectives; as, A stentorian 
(loud) voice. 

Remark. — Proper Adjectives begin with capitals. 

4. Quantitives, viz. : — Few. many ; little, much; dozen, score; 

* Twenty-dollar. 

7* 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and hundred, thousand, million, &c, used to express round 
numbers. 

Eemakk 1. — These words have a double construction. They are 
nouns as to what precedes them, and adjectives as to what they pre- 
cede; as, A great MANY men; A DOZEN books; A HUNDRED boys* 
Many, as a noun, is modified by a and great, but, as an adjective, it 
modifies men. 

Remark 2. — When many or half modifies a singular noun, it is fol- 
lowed by a or an; as, Full many a gem; Half an hour. 

5. The Cardinal Numbers, one, two, three, four, five, six, &c. 
Remark 1. — A Cardinal Number so restricts the application of a 

noun that it represents a definite number of persons or things; as, Ten 
men, in which expression the word men represents but ten objects. 

Remark 2. — When Cardinal Numbers follow nouns, they become ap- 
positives; as, Page WO; Hymn 769. 

Remark 8. — Cardinal Numbers, when used absolutely, that is, without 
a noun, become abstract nouns ; as,' Six times five is thirtv. 

6. The Ordinal Numbers, first, second, third, fourth, &c, 
with last and next. 

Remark 1. — Ordinal Numbers show the order of things taken singly 
or in groups; as, The Eirst line; the second stanza; the last three; the 
second four. 

Remark 2.— The Ordinal Numbers should precede the Cardinal; as, 
The last two stanzas, not the two last stanzas. 

Remark 3.— An Ordinal Number preceded by the and following a 
noun, is used as a title, and should be parsed as an appositive; as, 
Edward the Second. 

7. The Multiplicative^ single, double, triple, triplex, &c. 

Remark.— -A Multiplicative shows that the singular noun to which it 
is joined, represents more than one object; as, The word has a three- 
fold signification; A threefold offering to his altar bring,— a bull, a 
ram, a boar. 

8. A Qualifying Adjective describes the object repre- 
sented by the noun to which it is joined ; as, Good men; Sweet 
apples; Delicious pears. 

Remark 1. — This class includes a great many adjectives. All words 
used to designate the qualities of objects are called qualifying adjectives. 

Remark 2. — Qualifying Adjectives are restrictives, inasmuch as they 
limit the application of nouns to objects possessing certain qualities. 






ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 

9. A Participial Adjective is a participle which no longer 
expresses action or suffering, but, by a figure of speech, desig- 
nates a quality or condition ; as, A weeping willow ; A learned 
man ; A stricken deer. 

10. A Verbal Adjective expresses a relation or a mental 
operation; as, Nearer to thee; Desirous of glory. 

Remark 1. — Compound Adjectives are formed from two or more words ; 
as, Laughter-loving ; Far-seeing ; Bread-and-butter ; Never-to-be-forgotten. 

Remark 2. — Adjectives are here classed according to signification 
and use, and not according to form, 

140. Exercise. 

Select the Adjectives from the following sentences, and tell their 
species : — 

1. A wise and good man, whether rich or poor, is a great blessing 

to any community. 

2. Three strange men were seen skulking about the premises. 

3. He had two beautiful iron-gray horses and a new carriage. 

4. Every child in the community has a right to demand from society 

an education suitable to the sphere of life it is to occupy, 

5. All men think all men mortal but themselves, 

6. Which book shall I bring you? 

7. At the last faint gash he makes, his knife, his faithful knife, 

drops from his nerveless hand. 

8. Be not too earnest, loud, or violent in your conversation, 

9. Weigh your operations well, that they may be significant, perti- 

nent, and inoffensive. 
10. A great many men were present. 

1. Adjectival Personal Pronouns. Remark 1, 2, and Z. 

2. Nouns and Pronouns. 

3. Proper Adjectives. Remark. 

4. Quantitives Remark 1, 2. 

5. Cardinal Numbers. Remark 1, 2, 3. 

6. Ordinal Numbers. Remark 1, 2, 3. 

7. Multiplicatives. Remark. 

8. Qualifying Adjectives. Remark 1, 2, 

9. Participial Adjectives. 
10. Verbal Adjectives. Remark 1, 2. 



rig 

3 » 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XIV. 
Properties and Forms of Adjectives* 

141. The Grammatical Properties of Adjectives are 

I. Niimbei'. 
II. Comparison. 

142. (I.) The following adjectives are used only in the singular 
number, viz: A or an, each, every, many a, this, 
that, one, another, and the cardinal number one. 
(II.) The following words are used when two objects only are 
referred to, viz.: both, each other, either, neither, 
and the preposition between. 

(III.) The following adjectives are used only in the plural 
number, viz. : these, those, several, a few, few, 
many, divers, sundry, and the cardinal numbers 
two, three, &c. 

(IV.) The following words are used when more than two 
objects are referred to, viz.: Any one, no one, none, 
one another, and the preposition among. 

143. Comparison is that property of an adjective by 
virtue of which it changes its form to express different 
degrees of quality in similar or in various objects. 

144. Descriptive Adjectives are of two kinds, viz: 

(a.) Comparable. 
(b.) Incomparable. 

145. Comparable Adjectives describe the age, color, con- 
dition, habit, order, (quality^) size, temperature or weight of 
objects. Some few of distance, place and time are also compared. 

146. Incomparable Adjectives describe the form, material 
or shape of objects, and express all qualities that are apprehended 
as necessary. 

Note 1. — As descriptive adjectives are names of certain qualities 
and conditions of objects, of which w r e obtain a knowledge through 
either our perceptive or reasoning faculties, a proper distinction 
between Comparable and Incomparable Adjectives should be based 
upon the difference between the ideas thus acquired. Hence, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

Note 2. — Adjectives which express the accidental properties of 
matter, the moral, social, intellectual, physical or political condition of 
individuals or nations, or any of those qualities which exist in 
degrees, or in a progressive state, are comparable. 

Note 3. — Adjectives which express the essential properties of matter, 
the properties of mathematical figures, or any necessary quality, are 
incomparable. Hence, such words as equal, level, perpendicular, %quar% 
perfect, right, wrong, &c, are not compared. 

147. There are three degrees of Comparison, viz : 

(a.) The Positive* 

(5.) The Comparative. 

(c.) The Superlative, 

148. An Adjective is in the Positive degree, when it 
expresses a quality without reference to the same quality 
in another object, or to a diffe-rent quality in the same 
object; as, John is good. 

149. An Adjective is in the Comparative degree, when 
it expresses a quality relatively to the same quality in 
another object, or to a different quality in the same object; 
as, John is wiser than Greorge; Henry is more eloquent 
than learned. 

150. An Adjective is in the Superlative degree, when 
it expresses a quality relatively to the same quality in 
several objects; as, John K. is the best boy in school. 

151. The Comparative and Superlative degrees are 
formed 

1. By suffixing r or er for the Comparative, and st or est 
for the Superlative. 

(a.) To the positive of monosyllabic adjectives ; as, wise, 
wiser i wisest* 

(b.) To dissyllabic primitives whose last syllable com- 
mences with a consonant ; as, Holy, holier* holiest* 

2. By preposing more or less for the Comparative, and 
most or least for ihe Superlative. 



58 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



(a.) Before the positive of dissyllabic adjectives, the 
final syllable of which commences with a vowel ; as, 
Pious, more pious, moist pious. 

(b.) Before all derived dissyllabic adjectives ; as 7 Faithful, 
moire faithful, most faithful, 

(c.) Before all polysyllabic adjectives; as, Agreeable, 
more agreeable, most agreeable. 



Note 1. — The Diminutive Comparative is formed by suffixing ish, or 
by preposing almost, rather, slightly, somewhat, &c. ; as, 
Brackislk, almost grown, slightly wounded, somewhat gray. 

Note 2. — The Superlative Absolute is formed by preposing very, 
exceedingly, &c, to the positive ; as, He is a vert good man 

3. Irregularly. 

(a.) Those which want none of the forms. 



Positive. 




Comparative, 


Superlative, 


Bad 




worse 


worst 
C farmost 
-j farthermost 
V. farthest 


Far 




farther 








Good 




better 


best 


111 




worse 


worst 


Late 
Little 




( later 
1 latter 
f less 1 
1 lesser J 


latest (time) 




last (order) 
least 


Many 
Much 

Near 
Old 


} 


more 

nearer 

f older 
I elder 


most 

f nearest (position) 
I next (order) 
oldest 




eldest 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



59 



(6.) Those which want some of the forms. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 




further 


( furthest 
I furthermost 




hither 


hithermost 




nether 


nethermost 




under 


undermost 


Northern 




northernmost 


Rear 




rearmost 




upper 


f upmost 
1 uppermost 




inner 


f inmost 
(. innermost 






■ 


hinder 


J hindmost 
1 hindermost 




utter 


( utmost 
1 uttermost 
topmost 



4. How the degrees and shades of color are expressed. 

Note 1. — The more prominent colors are usually compared ; as, 
Black, blacker 9 blackest ; white, whiter 9 whitest ; red, redder , 
reddest^ &c. 

Note 2. — The prismatic colors of the solar spectrum, viz: red, 
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet, are assumed as the basis 
of color. These blend into each other so as to give rise to various 
shades and hues, with which different objects are possessed. To 
distinguish these shades and hues, the English language employs 
three methods, viz : 

(1.) The more prominent shades of color are indicated by 
special words ; as, Crimson, pink, purple, scarlet, &c. 

(2.) Words descriptive of the hues of color are prefixed to the 
generic words j as, RosE-re<i, PEA-green, mox-gray, &c. 

(3.) Proper nouns are used to express peculiar shades; as, Ma- 
genta, Solferino, &c. 



60 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



152. Exercise. 

1. Form the Comparative and Superlative of the following 
Adjectives : 

delightful large old 

diligent little pious 

excellent lovely serene 

green much warm 

good new wise 

2. Tell the degree of Comparison of each of the following 
Adjectives : 

Braver greener 

Brackish just 

Eldest less 

Orange next 



Able 

Active 

Beautiful 

Bright 

Calm 



OB 
> 

M 

H 

a 
< 

fa 
© 

» 
e 

fa 

fi 

fa 

M 

H 

BS 
fa 
fa 
© 

fa 



1. Number 



1.' 



more plentiful 

somewhat scarce 

very wise 

youthful 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

I Notes. J 2. 
b. Incomparable. J (3. 



} 



( a. Singular 

[b. Plural. 

f «. Comparable. 
Kinds. i 





g 



2/ Degrees, ■< 



a. Positive. 
b Comparative 



c. Superlative 



fa. K€ 

1/3. Di 

■r 

1/8. 



Relative. 
Diminutive. 
Relative. 
Absolute. 



3/ Formation. <i 



a. Suffixes. 



/?• 



£. Words preposed. 



ft 

I 7- 



c. Irregularly 



•r 

u 



<?. Colons. 



a. Notes 1 and 2. 
/?. Methods. 



g 



Greek Letters : a (Alpha), /3 (Beta), y (Gamma), 5 (Delta). 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 



LESSON XV. 

Copulative Verbs. Attributes. 

153. A Copulative Verb (§ 82) asserts the inherence 
of an attribute in the object represented by its subject; 
as, John is good; He became president. 

Remark.- — The finite parts of the verb to be are generally thus used. 
The verb is is however sometimes employed to predicate existence, 
in which case it becomes Intransitive; as, There is a God— God exists ; 
John is here. 

154. The Copula (§111) is that word by which some- 
thing is affirmed of the object represented by the subject; 
as, Chalk is white. 

155. The Attribute (§112) is a word or collocation 
of words expressing what is affirmed of the thing repre- 
sented by the subject; as, John is A man; John is GOOD. 

Remark. — The difference between a verb and an attribute is this: the 
verb affirms action, suffering, &c, of the object represented by its sub- 
ject, while an attribute expresses substance, office, class, possession, or 
quality. Verbs may be regarded as attributes having a self-predicating 
power. 

156. Nouns and adjectives are used as Attributes, and ex- 
press — 

(1.) Substance; as, The spoon is silver. 

(2.) Office; as, Grant is president. 

(3.) Class; as, Henry is a lawyer. 

(4.) Possession; as, That booh is mine; The horse is John's. 

(5.) Quality; as, Henry is good. 

Remark 1. — In identical propositions, pronouns are sometimes used 
as attributes; as, I am he; It is I. 

Remark 2. — The student should carefully note the difference of 
meaning of the expressions, Victoria is queen and Victoria is a queen, the 
indefinite article being used with an appellative to show that the word 
is taken in a general sense, and expresses class, not office. 

8 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

157. The grammatical properties of nouns and pronouns are deter, 
mined by our ideas of the objects which they represent. When we 
consider how much a noun represents, that is, whether it denotes an 
individual, or a class or collection of objects, &c, we have the 
Kinds of nouns. When we consider how many objects a noun or 
pronoun represents, we obtain dumber. When we regard the 
sex of the objects, we have Gender. From Relation is derived 
the properties of Person and Case. Person arises from the 
relation of the speaker as speaking to an object or objects repre- 
sented by,some other word. Case arises from the sentential relations 
of words. If two words denote the same object, they must be in the 
same number and gender, but they need not be of the same person 
and case. In the sentence, Am I my brother's keeper? /and keeper 
represent the same object, but are in different persons. In the 
sentence, "Jesus said unto them, when ye have lifted up the Son 
of man, then shall ye know that I am he/' them and ye represent 
the same objects, but are in different persons. So also son, I, and 
he. Words representing the same objects are not necessarily in the 
same case. In the sentence, John cut his finger, his and John repre- 
sent the same object, but are not in the same case. In the sen- 
tence, John is a man, John and man represent the same object, and 
are also in the same case. As this is invariably the case with 
nouns and pronouns used as attributes, we infer, — 

RULE IV. 

The attributive noun agrees in number, gender, and case with 
the noun or pronoun denoting the same object; as, Victoria is queen; 
Napoleon is Emperor. 

FORMULA IV. 

Species? Person? Number, gender, and ease? 
How used? Agreement? Rule IV. 

158. As an adjective, in whatever way used, is connected in 
thought with the noun or pronoun representing the object to which 
it refers, it should also be connected grammatically with that word. 
Hence, we infer, — 

RULE V. 

The adjective must be construed with the word representing the 
object to which it refers. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63 



FORMULA V. 

Species? Comparison? Number op Degree? How 
used? Refers to what? Construction? Rule V. 

159. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

(Ex. 1.) David was king. 

Analysis* 

David was king is a simple categorical proposition, of which David 
is the subject and was king, the predicate, of which was is the 
copula and king the attribute. 

Parsing, 

David is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, and is construed as the subject of was, and must 
therefore be in the nominative case, according to Eule I. The 
subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

Was is a copulative verb, principal parts, be, was, been, of the strong 
conjugation, indicative mode, past tense, common form, and is in 
the third person, singular number, to agree with its subject David, 
according to Rule II : The finite verb must agree with its subject in 
person and number. ■ 

King is a common noun, of the third person, and is of the singular 
number, masculine gender, and nominative case, to agree with 
David, according to Rule IV: The attributive noun agrees in 
number, gender, and case with the noun or pronoun denoting the same 
object. 

(Ex. 2.) Milton was Hind. 

Analysis. 

Milton was blind is a simple categorical proposition, of which Milton 
is the subject and was blind, the predicate, of which was is the 
copula and blind the attribute. 

Parsing. 

Milton is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, and is construed as the subject of was, and must 
therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule I : The 
subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Was is a copulative verb, principal parts, be, was, been, of the strong 
conjugation, indicative mode, past tense, common form, and in the 
third person, singular number, to agree with its subject Milton, 
according to Rule II : The finite verb must agree with its subject in 
person and number. 

Blind is a qualifying adjective, not compared; it is used with was 
to form the predicate, and is joined to the word Milton, according 
to Rule V: The adjective must be construed with the word representing 
the object to which it refers, 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Johnson became president 8. Job was patient. 

2. William became judge. 9. Moses was meek. 

3. Grant is general. 10. Charles had been weak. 

4. Sherman is lieutenant-general. 11. Milton was blind. 

5. Mary was preceptress. 12. I shall be judge. 

6. Eugenie is empress. 13. You had been studious. 

7. Victoria is queen. 14. She is beautiful. 

Models for Analysis and Parsing. 

l l 

r William, sub. ( Job, sub. 

) . 2 ) 2 

< will be, cop. -\ J was, cop. ^ 

) . * fPred. ) . 5 i VPred. 

• v. judge, aft. J v patient, att. ) 

Note. — Analysis and parsing may also be indicated by writing the 
number of the rule or rules relating to the construction, agreement or 
dependence of each word above it, drawing two horizontal lines beneath 
the principal elements, and showing the dependence of the other words 
by connecting them with curved lines. 

Thus: 

5 5 12 5 5 4 

A studious boy will become a useful man. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 65 

LESSON XVI. 
Adjectives as Modifiers. 

160. As stated in Lessons XI., XII., and XIII., Adjectives 
have three uses, viz. : — 

1. To show that a noun is taken in a general or indefinite 

seuse (Distributives). 

2. To point out a particular object (Definitives). 

3. To show that a noun is restricted in its application 

(Restrictives) . 

161. Grammarians commonly teach that " adjectives belong to 
some noun or pronoun." Others say that "adjectives limit or 
qualify the meaning of some noun or pronoun." It seems to me that 
this view is erroneous. The meaning of the noun is not changed by 
the adjective, only its application is limited. In the sentence, Those 
good boys are industrious, the meaning of boys is not changed by the 
adjectives those, good, and industrious. Those refers to objects as 
remote from the speaker, while good and industrious are expressive 
of certain qualities belonging to the objects represented by the word 
boys. Syntactically, these adjectives limit the application of the 
noun boys to certain objects possessing certain qualities. 

162. Nouns and pronouns in the possessive case are frequently 
used without being followed by a noun denoting the object possessed. 
This suppression of a limited noun generally occurs when the object 
referred to is indefinite or has been previously mentioned. The usual 
method of analysis is to supply a suppressed noun ; but this cannot 
be satisfactorily done in such expressions as Ye are Christ's, Gay 
hope is theirs, This is a picture of my father's, &c, in which the 
possessive does not limit the application of a noun, but simply indi- 
cates the possession of an indefinite or previously mentioned object. 
Hence, we infer, — 

RULE VI. 
A noun or pronoun indicating the possession of an indefinite or 
previously mentioned object, takes the possessive form; as, I stopped 
at Crall's; Your book is new, but John's is old; This is a sword of 
Washington's. 

FORMULA VI. 
Species? Person? X umber? Gender? Con- 
struction? Case? Rule VI. 

8* 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

163. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing* 

Ex. (1.) That horse is his. 

Analysis. 

That horse is his, is a simple categorical proposition, of which that 
horse is the subject, being complex, of which horse is the basis, 
marked definite by that, an adjective element of the first class; is 
his is the predicate, of which is is the copula, and his the attribute. 

Parsing. 

That is a demonstrative adjective, and is used to show that the object 
to which it refers is remote from the speaker; it is construed with 
the word horse, according to Rule V : The adjective must be con- 
strued with the word representing the object to which it refers. 

His is an adjectival personal pronoun, is used to show that the object 
horse to which it refers is possessed by the object which his repre- 
sents ; it is of the third person, singular number and masculine 
gender, and is used to indicate the possession of a previous men- 
tioned object, according to Rule VI. : A noun or pronoun indi- 
cating the possession of an indefinite or previously mentioned object, 
takes the possessive form, 

Ex. (2.) Ye are Christ's, 

Parsing. 

Christ's is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, and is used to indicate the possession of an in- 
definite object, and is therefore in the possessive case, according to 
Rule VI. 

Ex. (3.) I stopped at OralVs, 

Parsing, 

Crall's is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, and is used to indicate the possession of an inde- 
finite object, and is therefore in the possessive case, according to 
Rule VI. 

Ex. (4.) The old man came. 

Parsing. 

Tlse is the definite article, and is used to show that the word to 
which it is joined denotes a previously mentioned or well-known 
object. It is construed with the word man, according to Rule V. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 67 

Old is a qualifying adjective, compared, old. older, oldest, of the 
positive degree, and restricts the application of the word man, with 
which it is construed, according to Bule V. 

Ex. (5.) The first three boys have come. 

Parsing. 

First is an ordinal number, and is used to show the order in which 
objects, or groups of objects, are taken. It is construed with the 
word boys, according to Rule V. 

Three is a cardinal number, and is used to show how many objects 
the word boys denotes. It is construed with the word boys, accord- 
ing to Rule V. 

Ex. (6.) The American flag is beautiful. 

Parsing. 

American is a proper adjective, and restricts the application of the 
word flag, with which it is construed, according to Rule V. 

Ex. (7.) A great many men were present. 

Parsing. 

A is the indefinite article, and modifies many, with which it is con- 
strued, according to Rule V. 

Great is a qualifying adjective, compared, great, greater, greatest, 
of the positive degree, and modifies many, according to Rule V. 

Many is a quantitive, and modifies men, with which it is construed, 
according to Rule V. 

Ex. (8.) The wise are happy. 

Analysis. 

This is a simple categorical proposition, of which the wise is the 
subject, being complex, of which wise is the basis, distributed by 
the, an adjective element of the first class; are happy is the pre- 
dicate, of which are is the copula, and happy the attribute. 

Parsing. 

The is the definite article, and is joined to the word wise to show 
that it is taken in a general sense, and is construed with the word 
wise, according to Rule V. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Every good student is diligent. 

2. That beautiful bay horse is mine. 

3. Few religious men are unhappy. 

4. Several learned men were senators. 

5. Other students are more studious. 

6. Three interesting children died. 

7. This is an anecdote of Franklin's. 

8. Idle boys seldom become useful men. 

9. The nation has become powerful. 

10. This is a picture of my friend's. 

11. That beautiful Turkish carpet is new. 

12. A sacred thing is that old arm-chair. 

13. Low was our pretty cot. 

14. That book is John's. 

15. No lingering hour of sorrow shall be thine. 

16. Lazy boys will become worthless men. 

17. A valuable English watch was stolen. 



III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Them beautiful gray horses is ourn. 

2. Three foot makes a yard. 

3. A thousand million are a billion. 

4. A half-dozen dozens is six dozen dozens. 

5. Three pairs of stockings was in the box. 

6. Deers is handsome animals. 

7. Three yokes of oxen were in each plow. 

8. This here book belongs to Dick. 

9. That there slate is Sams. 

IV. Let the student write sentences containing the wor*ds men- 
tioned in Section 142, and illustrate the principles contained in this 
Lesson. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 69 



LESSON XVII. 

Construction of Nouns and Pronouns. Possessives. 

165. The case of a noun or pronoun depends upon its 
relation to other words. A noun or pronoun may be 
used, — 

1. As Subject, — 

a. Of a Finite verb ($ 126) ; as, John writes ■; He sleeps. 

b. Of an Infinitive ($403); as, I saw him fall. 

c. Of a Complementary Participle ($ 405) ; as, I saw him stand- 

ing on the corner. 

d. Of a Participle after a Preposition ($404); as, Possessed 

beyond the Muse's painting. 

2. As an Attribute (§ 157);#as, John is a lawyer. 

3. As a Possessive (§166); as, His books; Men's shoes. 

4. As a Complement, — 

a. Of a Verb ($ 174) ; as, Charles struck William. 
6. Of a Preposition ($207); as, John went to town. 

5. As an Appositive, — 

a. To identify ; as, Franklin, the philosopher. 

b. For emphasis; as, Spring, joyous Spring. 

c. Titles and surnames; as, Mrs. Dr. Scott; John Smith. 

d. Equivalent and explanatory; as, The puma, or American 

LION. 

6. Adverbially (§191); as, He is a SHADE better to-day; 
The board is three FEET long. 

7. Independently, — 

a. Denoting the object addressed ($435); as, John, bring me 

the book. 

b. Exclamatively ($435); as, What folly! 

c. Absolutely ($437); as, The rain having ceased, we de- 

parted. 

d. Elliptically in headings, captions, &c. (For examples, see 

the headings of the Lessons of this book.) 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

166. Whenever a norm or pronoun, or one or more 
nouns with modifiers, or two or more nouns connected by 
a conjunction, are used to limit the application of a noun 
by expressing something as external to the object repre- 
presented by the limited noun, it must be in the possessive 
case, or the sign of possession must be suffixed to the last 
word of the limiting expression. The possessive may be, — 

1. A noun or pronoun; as, John's hat; Ladies' gloves; My 

book. 

2. A noun and its appositive; as, John the Baptist's head. 

3. A Complex noun; as, William Henry Harrison's Message. 

4. A Compound noun ; as, His son-in-law's farm ; The aid- 

de-camp's horse. 

5. A Noun and an Adjective phrase; as, The Duke of Wel- 

lington's Achievements; The ruler of the synagogue's 
house. • 

6. Nouns denoting joint possessors; as, Parker and Watson's 

Readers; Mason & Dixon's Line. 

7. Nouns denoting separate possessors; as, Webster's, Walk- 

er's, and Worcester's Dictionaries; Brown's, Jones's 
and Smith's wives. 

8. A noun and numeral connected; as, A day or TWO 5 's absence ; 

A month or two's vacation. 

9. A Noun or pronoun used after a Preposition, — 

a. As the subject of a participle (§404); as, There is a chance 

of his retrieving his fortune. 

b. To condense the thought (§'s 426 and 427); as, An anecdote 

of Franklin's ; That head of yours. 

c. To denote place ; as, At Dr. Gerry's ; At Smith the Book- 

seller's. 

Remark 1. — In poetry the measure sometimes requires the insertion 
of an s after the apostrophe (' ), and at other times its omission. 

Remark 2.— Sometimes a harshness of sound is prevented by chang- 
ing the possessive to an adjective phrase; as, Augustus's speech equiva- 
lent to The Speech of Augustus. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 71 

167. In each of the above examples, the noun or pronoun is placed 
before a noun to express some external limitation, and invariably 
assumes the possessive form. Hence, we infer 

EULE VIL 

A NOUN or PRONOUN placed be/ore a noun to LIMIT its appli- 
cation, must be in the possessive case; as, Our neighbor's bees. 

FORMULA VII. 

Species? Person? Number? Gender? Construction? 
Case? Rule? 

Note — The adjectival personal pronouns, mine, ours; thine, 
yours; his, hers, its, theirs, are not in the possessive case, but are 
construed as adjectives denoting possession. In solemn discourse 
ur poetical language, however, mine and thine are used for my and 
thy. 

Remark. — The noun or pronoun in the possessive case is an adjective 
element of the first class. 

168. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

(1.) His lesson is difficult. 
Analysis. 

His lesson is difficult is a simple categorical proposition, of which his 
lesson is the subject, being complex, of which lesson is the basis 
modified by his, an adjective element of the first class ; is difficult is 
the predicate, of which is is the copula and difficult, the attribute. 

Parsing. 

His is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, to agree with the name of an object of like 
qualities present to the mind, according to Rule III. The pronoun 
must be in the same person, number and gender as the name of the 
object which it represents. It is placed before the word lesson to 
limit its application, and must therefore be in the possessive case, 
according to Rule VII. A noun or pronoun placed before a noun to 
limit its application, must be in the possessive case. 

(2.) John's hat is old. 

John's is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, is placed before the noun hat to limit its application, 
and must therefore be in the possessive case, according to Rule 
VII. A noun or pronoun placed before a noun to limit its application, 
must be in the possessive case. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing, 

1. The rook's nest is empty. 

2. My task is difficult. 

3. Our books are interesting. 

4. Henry's farm is productive. 

5. William's flowers are beautiful. 

6. Our George is a fine boy. 

7. John's lessons are abstruse. 

8. The man's hand was leprous. 

9. The king's council was unanimous. 

10. The nation's glory is great. 

11. Peter's wife's mother was sick. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. I will not destroy the city for ten sake. 

2. Brown, Smith, and Jone's wife went shopping. 

3. Some of JEschylus' and' Euripides's plays open thus. 

4. Augustus' speech was eloquent. 

5. Mr. McCulloch, the Secretary of the Treasury's Report. 

6. John's the Baptist's head was brought. 

7. I stopped at Smith's, the confectioner's. 

8. He was graduated at Rutger's College. 

9. They had sheeps' wool and dee.rs' skins. 

10. Xenophon wrote Socrates' s life. 

11. They fought for independence's sake. 

12. I hear the sound of horses feet. 

13. Phaeton drove Phoebus' steeds. 

14. He sells childrens' shoes and ladies' gloves. 

15. He did it for conscience's sake. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing a noun or pronoun in the pos- 
sessive case. The student should endeavor to illustrate in these sen- 
tences, all the principles of the Lesson. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



73 



LESSON XVIII. 

Transitive Verbs. Complements. 

169. A Transitive Verb (§83) asserts an activity which 
affects or causes the object represented by its complement; 
as, John stkuck James; Henry built a house. 

170. Some verbs have an Immediate and a Causative use. 

171. The use of a verb is Immediate when the action or 
state which it expresses belongs immediately to the object repre- 
sented by its subject; as, John learns; The hell rings. 

172. The use of a verb is Causative when the object repre- 
sented by its subject causes an action or state in some other 
object; as, John teaches Henry ; William rings the bell. 

Remark 1. — The use of a Transitive Verb is Immediate, when it is 
not followed by a complement; as, Percy writes; Mary teaches; El- 
len SCOLDS. 

Remark 2. — An Intransitive Verb may be followed by a verbal 
noun, that is, a noun denoting the result of the action expressed by 
the verb. The complement of such verbs is said to represent an object 
of kindred signification ; as, He sings a song; lie dreams a dream. 

Remark 3.— When these two uses are expressed by different verbs, 
there -is a tendency to use one of the verbs both Immediately and 
Causatively; hence such errors as He sets for he sits, He learns John fo** 
he teaches John, &c. 

Some of the following verbs are liable to be misused : — 



Immediate. 

John learns. 
John lies. 
John sits. 
John rises. 
John falls. 
John walks. 

The bell rings. 
G 



Causative. 

James teaches John — causes him to learn. 



James lays the book 
James sets the hen 
James raises a pole 
James fells a tree 



== causes it to lie. 

— pauses her to sit. 

— causes it to rise. 
= causes it to fall. 



James walks his horse = causes him to walk. 
John ring3 the bell = causes it to ring. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAS. 

173. A few Intransitive Verbs are sometimes used in 
the passive form; as, iJeis FALLEN; The melancholy days 

ARE COME. 

Remark. — This passive form is used to express a permanent con- 
dition. If the time of the act is considered, the auxiliary verb to 
have must be used; as, He has fallen from the tree; He had just come. 

174. Any word or collocation of words answering the 

question what? or, whom ? after the verb, is an Objective 
Element. 

Note. — The complement of a verb is a noun or pronoun denoting, 

1. The direct or passive object; as, John struck James. 

2. The indirect object; as, Henry gave me a book. 

3. The object of effect ; as, He built a house. 

4. The object of kindred meaning; as, He ran a race. 
Remark 1. — Many verbs are followed by two complements denoting, 

1. The passive or indirect object; as, John gave him it. 

2. The passive object and object of kindred meaning; as, 

John struck him a severe blow. 
Remark 2. — The noun denoting the factitive object should be called 
the complementary attribute. See § 411. 

175. As the form of the word, used as a complement of a verb, 
is invariably the same, and as grammarians term the form thus 
used the objective case, We infer 

RITIJ& Till* 

The complement of a verb must be in the objective case; 

as, John struck HIM. 

FORMULA VIII. 

Species? Person? tfumner ? Gender? Construc- 
tion? Case? Rule? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 75 

176. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

(1 .) William studies grammar. 

Analysis. 

William studies grammar is a simple categorical proposition, of which 
William is the subject and studies grammar is the predicate, being 
complex, of which studies is the basis, modified by grammar, an 
objective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Grammar is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the complement of studies, and 
must, therefore, be in the objective case, according to Rule VIII. : 
The complement of a verb must be in the objective case. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Dogs bite strangers. 5. Merchants sell goods. 

2» Wolves catch lambs. 6. Horses draw carriages. 

3. Lightning strikes trees. 7. Wealth produces pride. 

4. Misers love gold. 8. I shall see him. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Who did you invite ? 

2. Who shall he send ? 

3. Who shall I put in such a place as this? 

4. Let Mary send you and I. 

5. Tell me who you mean. 

6. Ye only have I known. 

7. Let thou and I the battle try. 

8. Him you should punish ; not I, who am innocent. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing a subject, verb and comple- 
ment. 



S3 





1. Complements. 



a. Object of kindred signification, 

b. Causative object. 

c. Direct object. 

d. Indirect object. 



2. Rule and Formula VIII. 

3, Models, 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XIX. 

Adjectiye Constructions. Apposition. 

177. A word designating an object may be modified 
by the addition of other nouns as titles, appellations, or 
epithets. 

Kemark 1. — A noun is sometimes in apposition with a sentence; as, 
Me offered to assist me; — a favor which 1 highly appreciated. 

Kemark 2. — Sometimes a word expressing a part, is made to agree 
with a word expressing the whole; as, They fled; some, one way; 
others, another; The Articles a and the. 

Remark 3. — Sometimes a word modified by & pronominal adjective 
is in apposition with a plural noun; as, They fled; — each man to his 
tent. 

Kemark 4. — An adjective designating a title is often in apposition 
with a noun ; as, Alexander the Great; Henry IV. 

Kemark 5. — In such expressions as "His reputation as a teacher," 
the adjective phrase as a teacher shows in what respect the object 
represented by the noun preceding the phrase is regarded. As is a 
preposition, and the word teacher is its complement. 

Kemark 6. — A noun in apposition with a possessive limiting an- 
other noun, and placed after the limited noun, does not take the sign 
of possession, unless it designates something as a mere appendage or 
afterthought; as, For Herodias's sake, his brother Philip's wife; 1 
bought the coat at Brown's, the clothier on Chestnut Street; He stopped 
at his uncle's, — Dr. Green's. 

Kemark 7. — In addressing a married lady, the title or initials of 
her husband are used instead of those of the lady herself; as, Mrs, 
Dr. Jones, Mrs. Henry Jones. Of a family of unmarried sisters, the 
eldest is denominated Miss, and the others Miss Mary, Miss Ellen, &c 
We say The Rev. Dr. Tyng, not Rev. Dr. Tyng ; but in directing a 
letter we omit the article the. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 77 

178. A noun placed after a noun or pronoun to identify it, is said 
to be in apposition, and the word thus apposed is a general term 
expressing the class, office, relation, &c, which distinguishes the 
object referred to by the apposed noun from other objects of the same 
name. The noun in apposition is generally of the nature of a title, 
and hence must have the same gender and number, and, as it forms 
part of a complex name, it is in the same construction, and must 
be in the same case; as, Ferdinand and Isabella, Icing and queen oj 
Castile and Leon, 

Hence, we infer 

RULE IX. 

A NOUN placed after a noun or pronoun to limit its applica- 
tion, must be in the same number, gender, and case; as, Darius 
the king. 

FORMUIiA IX. 

Species? Person ? Use? S amber , Gender and Case ? 
Agreement? Rule? 

179. I. Models of* Analysis and Parsing. 

(1.) Milton, the great English poet, was blind. 

Analysis. 

Milton, the great English poet, was blind, is a simple categorical propo- 
sition, of which Milton, the great English poet, is the subject, being 
complex, of which Milton is the basis, modified by the great English 
poet, an adjective element of the first class, being complex, of which 
poet is the basis, marked definite by the and modified by great and 
English, adjective elements of the first class; was blind, is the pre- 
dicate, of which was is the copula, and blind, the attribute. 

Parsing. 

Poet is a common noun, of the third person, and is in the singular 
number, masculine gender, and nominative case, to agree with the 
noun Milton, which it identifies, according to Rule IX: A noun 
placed after a noun or pronoun to limit its application, must be in the 
same number, gender, and case* 

9* 



78 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Henry the Fourth was an excellent king. 

2. The patriarch Abraham was accounted faithful. 

3. The emperor Nero was a cruel tyrant. 

4. William the Conqueror defeated Harold, the Saxon king. 

5. The disciple John was beloved. 

6. The proto-martyr Stephen was a holy man. 

7. We the people are the sovereigns. 

8. The inhabitants, men, women, and children, were heroes. 

9. Happiness, honor, wealth, all were his. 

10. Irving's Washington is his best work as an author. 

11. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Mary, the doctor, is sick. 

2. James, the witch, was dishonest. 

3. Jane, the sloven, is a tutor. 

4. Francis, the queen, was dethroned. 

5. Clara, the swain, was young. 

IV. Write ten sentences illustrating the principles enunciated in 
this lesson. The apposed part, unless short, must be separated by 
a comma before and after it. 



> 





b 
fa 



1. Rule and Formula. 

2. Notes, 1, 2, 3, 4. 

3. Models. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 79 

LESSON XX. 
Classification of Adverbs. 

180. An Adverb is a word which expresses place, time, 
cause, manner, degree or modality. 

181. There are six species of Adverbs, viz : 

I. Adverbs of Place. 

a. Position ; as, Here, there, yonder, etc. 

b. Direction ; as. Hither, thither, upwards, downwards, etc. 

c. Origin ; as, Hence, thence, whence, etc. 

d. Order; as, First, secondly, finally, etc. 

e. Place Indefinite*, as, Elsewhere, somewhere, etc. 

II. Adverbs of Time. 

1. A Point. 

a. Simultaneous ; as, Tlien, meanwhile, etc. 

b. Antecedent; as, Before, beforehand, erewhile, etc. 

c. Subsequent ; as, After, afterwards, etc. 

2. A Period. 

a. Absolutely; as, Always, continually, etc. 

b. Indefinitely ; as, Ever, long t etc. 

3. Frequency. 

a. Customarily; as, Generally, regularly, etc. 

b. Definitely; as, Once, twice, three-times. 

c. Indefinitely; as, Betimes, often, sometimes, etc. 

III. Adverbs of Cause ; as, Why, wherefore, etc. 

IV. Adverbs of Manner ; as, Bravely, cleverly, dearly. 

V. Degree : 

a. Intensity ; as, More, somewhat, so, very, etc. 

b. Quantity; as, Enough, little, much, etc. 

VI. Modality: 

a. Affirmation ; as, Yea, yes, verily, etc 

b. Negation ; as, No, nay f not, etc. 

c. Uncertainty; as, Likely, probably, etc. 



80 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



182. Adverbs, like some adjectives, are compared by prefixing 
more or less for the Comparative, and most or least for the Superla- 
tive ; as, Early, more or less early, most or least early. 

Remark. — The adjective early is compared as follows: early, earlier, 
earliest. 

183. Prepositions intimately connected with verbs and having no 
noun or pronoun depending upon them, are generally regarded as 
adverbs; as, He walks about, he fell down. But as they really 
change the meaning of the verb, they form an essential part of it, 
and should be treated as separable particles, not as modifiers. In the 
sentence he walks about, walks no longer expresses the mode of 
progression, but is so modified by about as to mean something quite 
different. So, too, with he laughs at me, laughs at being equivalent 
to derides. 



184. —There is a 


correlation among certain adverbs, 


one answering 


to another, viz : 








Interrogative. 


Indefinite. 


Demonstrative. 


Indirect. 


r Where ? 


Somewhere. 


Here or there. 


Where. 


Place \ Whither? 


Anywhither. 


Hither or thither 


Whither. 


( Whence ? 


Anywhere. 


Hence or thence. 


Whence. 


Time When ? 




Then. 


When. 


Cause I y ' 

I Wherefore? 




Therefore. 


Wherefore. 


Manner How ? 


Somehow. 


So or thus. 


How. 



185. Exercise. 

Select the adverbs from the following sentences, and tell to 
what species they belong : 

1. Never before did I see her look so pale. 

2. I have been too idle heretofore; but henceforth I will study 
more diligently. 

3. The hall was brilliantly illuminated and densely crowded. 

4. Climb not too high, lest thy fall ba the greater. 

5. Deliberate slowly, execute promptly. 

6. Fair and softly go far in a day. 

7. Patience is a flower that grows not everywhere. 
■8, The plowman slowly plods his homeward way, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 81 

LESSON XXI. 
Construction of Adyerhs. 

186. Adverbs are used 

(1.) To limit an attribute as to time, place or manner* as, 
John wrote yesterday ; Mary was there ; Jane studied 

DILIGENTLY. 

(2.) To express the modality of the copula; as, He is not 
dead, but sleepeth. 

(3.) To express degree; as, He is very diligent 

187. The position of the adverb is 

(1.) After the copula ; as. He is not here. 

(2.) After the imperfect and compound tenses of the common 
and progressive forms of the verb; as, The sails were 
shaking violently ; the head-yards swung up heavily ; 
he will learn it readily. 

(3.) Before the participle in the passive form and perfect 
tenses of the verb; as, The sails were already brought 
within the folds. 

(4.) Before the adjective or adverb which it limits; as, 
Henry is very studious. 

188. The natural position of the adverb is before the word which 
it limits, but, the relation between the subject and copula being 
more intimate than that between any other elements, it becomes 
necessary to place it as described in Section 187, 1 and 2. But 
when it is emphatic, it seems to form an integral part of the 
predicate, and is placed before the imperfect tenses of the common 
and progressive forms of the verb; as, /really believe some people 
save their bright thoughts; the gentlemen gallantly attended their fair 
ones; the gentlemen alternately nibbled and sipped. In these and 
similar cases the adverb seems to express rather some limitation of 
the signification of the verb in its inherent nature than any external 
limitation of place, time or manner; as, His first poems were received 
with a contempt which they did not absolutely deserve; our enemies 
usually teach us what we are* 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Hence, we infer 

RULE X. 

The adverb must be construed with the word which it modifies, 

FORMULA X. 

Species? Comparison ? Degree? How used? Con- 
struction ? Rule ? 

189. Any word or collocation of words, answering the question, 
when? where? why? or how? is an adverbial element. 

Remark. — The errors commonly made in the use of adverbs are 

1. Using the wrong word, viz: never for ever, no for not 

or any, most for almost, mighty for very, where 
for whither or whence, there for thither or thence, 
here for hither or hence, some or something for 
somewhat, as for so. 

2. Using an adjective instead of an adverb; as, The pen does 

not write good. 

3. Using two negatives ; as, She will never grow no taller. 

190. I. Models ol* Analysis and Parsing. 

(1.) Good pupils study diligently. 

Analysis. 

Good pupils study diligently is a simple categorical proposition, of 
which good pupils is the subject, being complex, of which pupils is 
the basis, modified by good, an adjective element of the first class; 
study diligently is the predicate, being complex, of which study is 
the basis, modified by diligently, an adverbial element of the first 
class. 

Parsing. 

Diligently is an adverb of manner, compared, diligently, more diligently, 
most diligently, of the positive degree, is used to show how good 
pupils study, and modifies study with which it is construed, according 
to Rule X: The adverb must be construed with the word which it 
modifies. 

(2.) John came yesterday. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 83 

Parsing. 

Yesterday is an adverb of time, is used to limit the predicate, and 
modifies came, with which it is construed, according to Rule X. 

(3.) He writes very rapidly. 

Parsing. 

Very is an adverb of degree, is used to form the superlative absolute 
degree, and modifies rapidly, with which it is construed, according 
to Rule X. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. I will write to-morrow. 

2. His heart w ent pit-a-pat. 

3. She went to town early. 

4. He will certainly come. 

5. The most worthless things are sometimes most esteemed. 

6. They left early yesterday morning. 

7. The boy ran very rapidly. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. All their neighbors were not invited. 

2. Theism can only be opposed to polytheism. 

3. He is thought to be generally honest. 

4. It is impossible continually to be at work. 

5. I don't know nothing about your affairs. 

6. It rains most every day. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing adverbs of the different kinds. 



f 1. Uses, 1, 2, 3. 
2. Position, 1, 2, 3, 4. Remark. 



pq 
Si 

y -j 3. Rule and Formula 



> 

ft 



4. Errors, 1, 2, 3. 
L 5. Models. 1, 2, 3. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXII. 
Quantitative Complement. 

191. A noun used without a preposition to express distance^ 
direction, extent, manner, measure, quantity, time, value or weight, 
is put in the objective case without a governing word; as, 

Willie slept four hours. And since nouns thus used generally 
answer the questions, How far? In tohat direction? How long? 
How much? &c, the construction may appropriately be termed 
the Quantitative Complement. Hence we infer 

RUUE XI. 

The quantitative complement is in the objective case, 

generally without a governing word; as, John wears his cloak 

coat FASHION 

FORMULA XI. 

Species? Person? Number? Gender? Construc- 
tion? Case? Rule XI. 

Remark. — In Greek and Latin th^s construction is called the 
Accusative of Limitation or Measure. 

192. I, Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1, The board is twelve feet long. 

Analysis. 

The board is twelve feet long is a simple categorical proposition, of 
which the board is the subject, being complex, of which board is 
the basis, marked definite by the, an adjective element of the first 
class ; is twelve feet long is the predicate, of which is is the copula, 
and twelve feet long is the attribute, being complex, of which long 
is the basis, modified by twelve feet, an independent adverbial 
element of the first class, being complex, of which feet is the basis, 
modified by twelve, an adjective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Feet is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 85 

gender, and is used as the quantitative complement, and must, there- 
fore, be in the objective case, according to Rule XL The quantita- 
tive complement is in the objective case generally without a governing 
word. 

Ex. 2. The knife is worth a dollar. 

Analysis. 

The knife is worth a dollar is a simple categorical proposition, of 
which the knife is the subject, being complex, of which knife is the 
basis, marked definite by the, an adjective element of the first 
class; is worth a dollar is the predicate, of which is is the copula, 
and worth a dollar is the attribute, being complex, of which worth 
is the basis, modified by a dollar, an independent adverbial ele- 
ment of the first class, being complex, of which dollar is the basis, 
distributed by a, an adjective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Worth is a qualifying adjective, not compared; it is used with is to 
form the predicate, and is construed with the word knife, accord- 
ing to Rule V. : The adjective must be construed with the word repre- 
senting the object to which it refers. 

Dollar is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender; is used as the quantitative complement, and must, 
therefore, be in the objective case, according to Rule XI,: The 
quantitative complement is in the objective case generally without a 
governing word. 

Ex. 3. He went home* 

Analysis* 

He went home is a simple categorical proposition, of which he is the 
subject and went home, the predicate, being complex, of which 
went is the basis, modified by home, an independent adverbial 
element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Home is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender; is used as the quantitative complement, and must 
therefore be in the objective Ofise, according to Rule XI. : The 
quantitative complement is in the objective case generally without a 
governing word. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

II* Examples for Analysis and Parsing* 

1. I do not care a fig. 

2. John is fourteen years old. 

3. He is head and heart in love. 

4. The ditch is fifteen feet deep. 

5. John went home this morning. 

6. The lady weighed ninety-nine pounds* 

7. The army marched fifteen miles. 

8. James walks dandy fashion. 

9. His pantaloons are a world too wide. 

10. He remained in Europe three years. 

11. I was married ten years ago. 

12. The horse was worth three hundred dollars. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. He is of six years old. 

2. He went to home. 

3. The board was of six feet long. 

4. I will go on to-morrow. 

5. Let a gallows be made of fifty cubits high* 

6. To a man of forty or fifty years old. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing quantitative complements. 



d 

•N 


' 1. 


Relations expressed 


2. 


Rule and Formula. 


5 




k 3. 


Models. 1, 2, 3. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 87 



LESSON XXIII. 

Classification of Prepositions. 

193. A Preposition is a connective which joins words 
representing related things; as, John went to town. 

Remark 1. — Prepositions are divided into two classes; Simple and 
Composite. 

1. The Simple Prepositions are at, after, hy, down^ for, 
from, in, of on, over, past, round, since, through, till, to, under, 
up, and with. 

2. The Composite Prepositions are, — 

a. Abaft, aboard, about, above, across, against, along, amid, 

amidst, among, amongst, around, athwart. 

b. Before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, be- 

twixt, beyond. 

c. Into, unto, upon, within, without. 

d. Out of, throughout, toward, towards, underneath, until* 

Remark 2. — The following words are sometimes prepositions, viz. j— 
But, except, save; concerning, during, &c. 

194. Prepositions are used with nouns and pronouns to form 
Adjective and Adverbial Phrases. 

195. The following prepositions, when they connect nouns or 
pronouns, are used to form Adjective Phrases: — 

1. Quality, viz. : Of with ah abstract noun. 

2. Place or Time, viz.: About, among, around, at* between* 

in, on, under. 

3. Cause or Source, viz. : Of, from, through, 

4. Possession or Property, viz. : Of. 
6i Approximation, viz. : At* by, on* 

6. Tendency or Fitness, viz.: To, unto, (to and for with ad- 
jectives.) 

*l. Exclusion, viz. : Besides, but, except, save, unless, with- 
out. 

8. Resemblance, viz. : After. 

Note. — Than is used as a preposition before the relative pronoun 
whom j as, Than whom, Satan except, none higher sat. 



88 ENGLISH GUAM MAR. 

196. The following prepositions, when they connect nouns or 
pronouns to verbs or participles, are used to form Adverbial 
Phrases : 

1. Phrases of Place. 

a. Position. 

Abaft, along, about, above, across, alter, against, amid, at, 
before, behind, below, beneatb, beside, between, betwixt, down, 
in, off, on, over, out of, past, through, throughout, under, 
underneath, up, upon, within, without. 

b. Direction* 

a. Vertical, viz : Down, up. 
/3. Circular, viz: About, around, round. 
7. Horizontal, viz: Along, at, athwart, into, to, 
towards. 

J. Oblique, viz: Across, upon (motion). 

c. Origin, viz : From, of, out-of, off*. 

Note. — From, with an adverb or another preposition, denotes 
origin indefinitely : as, Drive the dog from under the table . 

2. Phrases of Time. 

a. A Point 

a. Simultaneous, viz: At, by, in, on, within* 
p. Antecedent, viz: Before, ere, towards. 

y. Subsequent, viz: After, past. 

b. A Period. 

a. Duration, viz: During, for, through, throughout. 

p. Commencement, viz: From, since. 

y. Termination, viz: Till, until, within* 

c. Frequency. 

a. Instantaneous, viz: For. 

p. Customary, viz: On; as, On Mondays* 

3. Phrases of Cause. 

a. Reason, viz: For. 

b. Source, viz: By, concerning, from, of, off. 

c. End, viz: For, to, unto. 

d. Instrumentality, viz: Tlirough, with. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. gg 

4» Phrases of Maimer. 

•a. Quality* 

a. Accompaniment, viz: Among, alon- with, beside 
Willi. 

ft. Agency, viz: By. 

}'. Resemblance, viz: After, lllce. 

<k How <t thing is done, viz; With* 

h. Quantity* 
a/ Absolutely. 

«. TJ^Wre of Magnitude* as, #* « six FEET /^ 
£ Measure of Excess; as, «7bAn is taller than George. 
b.' Relatively* 

«. ^a%, viz for* enough or sufficiently for; 

SO — AS* 

fi. Inequality, 

«.' -Ew««, viz: too-for; Infinitive. 

A' Ae/erf, viz: more-thanj less-thaa? Infinitive. 

197, Exercise. 

Select the prepositions from the following sentences, and tell 
tvhat relation they express: 

1 The boy stood on the burning deck, 
Whence all but him had fled; 
The light that lit the vessel's wreck 
Shone round him o'er the dead. 
2. Which when Beelzebub perceived, than whom. 
Satan except, none higher sat, with grave 
Aspect he rose, and in his rising seein'd 
A pillar of state. 

a In the meantime, speaking in the name of the whole people 

of the United States, and at a loss only for language to 2ve 

utterance to that feeling of attachment, with which So heaft f 

he natxon beats as the heart of one man,-I bd you a r luetant 

but affectionate farewell reluctant 

H 10. 



90* ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

LESSON XXIV. 

Prepositions. Phrases* 

193. A Preposition is a connective which joins words 
representing related things; as ? The fort stood on the hill* 

Remark.— The words representing the related things must always 
be expressed. 

199. Every Preposition must have a word or combination of 
words after it to complete its meaning ) as, The sugar is in THU 
cellar; from WHAT he SAID; i" inferred that he had been 
there i 

Remark.— What follows the preposition is termed its comple- 
ment* 

200. A Preposition and its complement tised as an element 
of discourse is termed a t*nrase; as, A man OF integrity* 
always succeeds. 

201- A Phrase is complex when its complement consists of 
more than one word ; as, Lincoln died IN THE HIGHT OF HIS 
GLORY. 

202. Phrases are of three kinds, viz : 

(1.) Substantive: as, FROM AnnVILLE TO LEBANON 

is fioe miles. 
(2.) Adjective; as, 'The emperor OF Russia is dead. 
(3.) Adverbial; as, The apples are IN THE CELLAR. 

203. A Substantive Phrase may denote 

(a.) Tendency from One point to another; as, From Shrews- 
bury to Baltimore is 34 miles, 
{b.) Position; as, John said to his son, Drive the dog from 

UNDER THE TABLE. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 91 

204. An AdjectiTe Phrase may denote 

(a.) Quality; as, A man of integrity. 

(b.) Place or time; as, The mill on the floss; flowers in 

spring. 
{c.) Cause or Source; as, A good hope through grace. 
(d.) Possession or kindred ; as, The brother of J ames. 
(e.) Approximation; as, The house at the gap. 
(/.) Tendency or fitness; as. Sin unto death. 
(g.) Exclusion; as, A man without arms; <lU but him. 

205. An Adverbial Phrase may denote 

1. Place, 

(a.) Position; as, He is across the stream, 
(b.) Direction; as, He went toward the woods, 
(c.) Origin ; as, He came from Texas, 

2. Time, 

(a.) A Point ; as, He came at twelve o'clock. 

(b.) A Period ; as, He remained during a session. 

(c.) Frequency ; as. He -comes on Tuesdays and Thursdays. 

3. Cause ; as, He went for the physician, 

4. Manner. 

(a.) Quality ; as, She went with him. 
(b.) Quantity; as, John is older than George, 
Note.— For full classification, see Lesson XXIII. 

206. A Preposition shows the relation of one object to another, 
and at the same time connects the words representing these objects. 
Hence, we infer 

RILE XII. 

A PREPOSITION connects words representing RELATED things. 

FORMULA XII. 
Species? Connects what words? Rule XII. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

207. The word used to complete the meaning of a preposition 
invariably assumes the objective form. Hence we infer 

RULE XIII. 

The COMPLEMENT of a preposition must be in the OBJECTIVE 
CASE. 

FORMULA XIII. 

Species? Person? Number? Gender? Construc- 
tion ? Case ? Rule XIII. 

208. I. Models or Analysis and Parsing. 

1. The old oak is loaded with a flock of singing blackbirds. 

Analysis. 

This is a simple categorical proposition, of which the old oak is the 
subject, being complex, of which oak is the basis, marked definite 
by the and modified by old, adjective elements of the first class; 
is loaded with a flock of singing blackbirds is the predicate, being 
complex, of which is loaded is the basis, modified by with a flock of 
singing blackbirds, an adverbial element of the second clflss, of 
which with is the connective, and a flock of singing blackbirds, the 
objective part, being complex, of which flock is the basis, distri- 
buted by a, an adjective element of the first class, and modified by 
of singing blackbirds, an adjective element of the second class, of 
which of is the connective, and singing blackbirds the objective part, 
being complex, of which blackbirds is the basis, modified by singing, 
an adjective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

With is a preposition, and shows the relation of flock to loaded, 
which words it connects, according to RuleXII: A preposition con- 
nects words representing related things. 

Flock is a collective noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the complement of the prepo- 
sition with, and must therefore be in the objective case, according 
to Rule XIII : The complement of a preposition must be in the objective 
case. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 93 

Of is a preposition, and shows the relation of blackbirds to flock, 
which words it connects, according to Rule XII: The preposition 
connects words representing related things. 

Blackbirds is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the complement of the prepo- 
sition of, and must therefore be in the objective case, according to 
Rule XIII: The complement of a preposition must he in the objective 
case. • 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Mine are the gardens of earth and sea. 

2. The stars themselves have flowers for me. 

3. Mary went from New York to Norfolk in the cars. 

4. The anchor clung to the rock with tenacity. 

5. I kept my eye upon the receding mass of ice. 

6. We ran to the dark spot in the center of the mass. 

7. A movement of the tide set the ice in motion. 

8. Thou hast kept thy word with me to the last moment. 

9. A yell of indignation sounded on all sides. 

10. He fell dead at the feet of the white woman by a blow of the 
tomahawk. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. This is between he and I. 

2. Who do you clerk for? 

3. They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. 

4. Who is that boy talking to ? 

5. Who shall I direct this letter to? 

6. I don't know who his daughter married. 

7. Who did he receive that intelligence from? 

8. I hope it is not I he is displeased with. 

9. It is not I he is engaged with. 

10. To poor we there is not much hope remaining. 

11. The person who I traveled w r ith sold his horse. 

12. He laid the blame on hisself. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXV. 

Yerbal Adjectives. 

209. A Verbal Adjective expresses a relation or men- 
tal affection; as, Be kind to thy father; I am hungry 
for fruit; The house is near the river. 

210. Verbal adjectives require an indirect object to complete their 
meaning.^ They are of two kinds, viz, : — 

1. Those expressing a relation, viz.: — 

(a.) Advantage or disadvantage; as, Kind to his friends, 

(b.) Facility or difficulty; as, Easy of access, 

(c.) Fitness or unfitness; as, Fit for a king, 

(d.) Likeness or unlikeness; as, Like to an eagle, 

(e.) Proximity or remoteness; as, Close to the river, 

(f) Usefulness or uselessness ; as, Useful to all. 

Suggestion. — It seems to me that all adjectives of the comparative 
and superlative degrees belong to this class, and* should be construed 
accordingly. In the sentence, John is taller than George, taller ex- 
presses the relation of John to George with respect to size. Now, 
suppose than be regarded as a preposition, and George as its com- 
plement, and the phrase than George as complementary of the 
relation expressed by taller, would not the construction be disposed 
of satisfactorily? The usual method is to supply words and to re- 
quire the noun or pronoun following than to be put in the nomi- 
native case, agreeing with a verb understood. The fact is, the 
thought is condensed, the common part of the sentence being omit- 
ted. See J 393, (4.) 

2. Those expressing a mental affection, viz.: — 

(a.) Appetite or passion; as, Hungry for fruit. 

(b.) Certainty or doubt; as, Certain of success. 

(c.) Desire or aversion; as, Desirous of praise. 

(d.) Knowledge or ignorance; as, Mindful of a kindness. 

(e.) Patience or impatience; as, Impatient of restraint. 

(f) Power or weakness; as, Strong for the fght. 

(g.) Plenty or want; as, Full of hope. 

(h.) Remembering or forgetting; as, Forgetful of results. 

(i.) Sharing or withholding; as, Lavish of expense. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR- 95 

JB®* The following prepositions follow verbals, viz, : — At, after, 
Against, between, by, for, from, in, into, on, upon, of, over, to, 
and with: — 

At denotes nearness, and follows angry, disgusted, glad, and land. 

After follows eager, hanker, and long. 

Against follows exception, guard, militate, object, offend, prejudice, 

provide, &c. 
Between follows intermediate and intervene. 
By follows followed, overwhelmed (with), and profit. 
For follows capacity, eager, fondness, long, martyr, necessary (to), 

occasion, provide, and sympathy. 
From follows abhorrent (to), derogate, differ, diminish, discourage, 

dissent, in distinction, exception (to, against), exclude, extracted, 

foreign (to), free, omitted, preserve, refrain, release, relieve (of), 

subtract, swerve. 

Remark. — In, into, on, and upon are related; in and on denote 
rest, and.zrafo and upon motion. 

In follows confide, deficient, difficulty, eager (for, after), embark 
(for), incorporate (into, with), invested (with), involve, in or with 
regard to, in or with respect to. 

On follows dependent, entrance (upon, into), founded (upon), influ- 
ence (over, with), rely, (upon). [Irate. 

Into follows entrance (on, upon), incorporate (with, in), inroad, pene- 

Ugion follows enter and entrance (on, into), founded, rely (on). 

Over follows influence (with, on), and preference (to, above). 

Of follows abhorrence, accuse, brag, cured, diminution, enamored 
(with), exclusive, fond, glad, independent, lame, made, mistrust- 
ful, need, neglectful, productive, pursuance, relieve (from), rid, strip, 
weary, worthy, &c. 

To follows abhorrent, access, adapted, adequate, agreeable, aspire, 
conformable, congenial, contiguous, derogatory, destined, discourage- 
ment, disparagement, exception (from, against), foreign (from), in- 
accessible, incentive, indulgent, inured (to), join (with), marry, ne- 
cessary (for), object (against), offensive, peculiar, pertinent, pleas- 
ant, preferable, preference, prejudicial, profitable, pursuant, relation, 
resemblance, similar, &c. 

With follows accord (to), comply, conformable (to), congenial (to), 
consonant, disgusted (at), enamored (of), incorporate (in, into), in- 
vested (in), join (to), level, intermarry, meddle, mingle, overwhelmed 
(by), pleased, provide (for, against), replete, sympathize, and unison. 



&f> ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — When two or more prepositions follow a verbal, the 
teacher should show how each is used. 

211. I. Models- or Analysis and Parsing* 

JZx.—The place is. easy of access. 

Analysis* 

The placets easy of access is a simple categorical proposition,, of which 
the place- is the subject, &c. r and is easy of access is the predicate, 
of which is. is the copula, and easy of access 'the attribute,, being 
complex, of which easy is the basis, modified by of access-, an 
objective element of the second class, of which of is the connective 
and access the objective part.. 

Parsing* 

Of is a preposition,, and shows the relation of access to easy , which 
words it connects, according to Rule XII: The, §c. 

Access is a Verbal noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, and is construed as the complement of of, and must there- 
fore be in the objective case, according to> Rule XIII: The, <J*c 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing* 

1. Be kind to your friends. 

2. John is inexperienced in business* 

3. William is like his brother. 

4. The house is near the mountain. 

5. Be mindful of his favors* 

6. He is older than his brother. 

7. Orgetorix was the richest of the Helvetians,. 

8. Henry is weary of business. 

9. James is fond of apples. 

10. The entertainment was fit for a prince. 

III. Examples in False Syntax* 

1. He was conversant in many languages. 

2. His acts are inconsistent to his profession. 

3. They are skilful in playing. 

4. The offer was agreeable with my views. 

5. He is congenial with his friends. 

6u His house is contiguous with the road. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 97 

LESSON XXVL 
Classification of the Yerb. 

212. A Yerb is a word or collocation of words which 
expresses affirmation. 

213. The Verb may be considered, — 

I. In regard to the Thought expressed. 
II. In regard to its Forms. 
III. In regard to its Syntax. 

214. The Uses, Kinds, and Properties of verbs are deter- 
mined by the thought which they express. 

215. Yerbs have two uses; Immediate and Causative* 
(See §§ 170-472). 

Remark. — This peculiarity of verbs is expressed, — 

1. By using a different vowel in the root of the verb; as, The 

book lies on the desk; The teacher lays the book on the desk. 

2. By using correlative verbs-; as, John learns; George teaches 

John. 

3. By using the active for the passive form; as, The bell rings 

= is rung; Wheat sells — is sold for a dollar a busheU 

216. There are three kinds of verbs. 

1. Intransitive. § 122. 

2. Copulative. § 153. 

3. Transitive, § 169. 

Remark. — A verb may be modified, — 

1. By an adverb; as, John writes, beautifully. 

2. By an attributive noun or adjective; as, Milton is a poet; John 

is GOOD. 

3. By a modifying adjective; She looks cold. 

4. By a noun or pronoun denoting the direct or passive object; as. 

John struck George. 

5. By a noun or pronoun denoting the indirect object; as, John 

gave her an apple. 

6. By a noun denoting the object of effect; as, Johy* wrote a 

letter. 

7. By a noun denoting the object of kindred meaning; as, He ran 

a race. 

8. By a noun denoting the quantitive object; as, He is six years 

olds 

U 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. By a noun denoting the factitive object; as, They elected him 

PRESIDENT. 

10. By a phrase or a clause; as, He went to town; He asked what 
he shou^p DO. 

217. The properties of the verb relating to its signification 
are Voice, Mode, Tense, and Condition. 

218. Voiee has been treated in §§ 88-91. 

219. Mode is the manner in which a verb asserts an attri- 
bute of the object denoted by its subject. There are three ways 
in which, this is done, and hence there are three modes; the 
Indicative, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative. 

220. A verb is in the Indicative mode when it asserts an 
attribute as a fact or a question ; as, John loves ; Does John 
love? 

221. A verb is in the Subjunctive mode when it asserts an 
attribute as existing only in thought. What exists simply in 
thought is regarded, — 

1. As obligatory, necessary, essential, or inevitable; as, He 

should go; You must study; It shall oome to pass. 

2, As probable, possible, contingent, supposed, or assumed; 

as, He may come ; He can write; If it rain, we cannot 
•go. that I were young ! 

222. A verb is in the Imperative mode, when it asserts an 

attribute as willed by the speaker; as, Thy sins be forgiven 

thee : Arise, take up thy bed and walk ) Thy kingdom come. 

" My soul turn from them — turn we to survey." 
" For me, when I forget the darling theme, 
Be my tongue mute, my fancy paint no more, 
And, dead to joy, forget my heart to beat I" 

223. Tense relates to the time of the assertion, and has been 
treated in §§ 95-101. 

224. The attribute expressed by a verb may be regarded,— 

1. As indefinite, incomplete, or complete. 

2. As emphatic, interrogative, or poetic. 

3. As conditional or potential. 

4. As willed by the speaker. 

Eemark. — For examples, see Synopsis on the next two pages. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR,. 99 

225. Synopsis, 

Showing the Voice, Mode, Tense, and Condition of the verb. 

I. With regard to present and past time. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

1. Indefinite. 

| Common Form ; as, Corn grows ; She goes to school; 

a. Present time, j Passive Form . ^ y j onn IS LOV ei). 

/'Common Form; as, Corn grew; She attended 

b. Past time. \ school. 

( Passive Form ; as, John was loved. 

2. Incomplete. 

f Progressive Form; as, Corn is growing. 

a. Present time, j Passive Form . as ^ T he house IS BEING Bu ^ 

( Progressive Form ; as, She was going to school: 

b. Past time. < Passive Form; as, / was going to school while the 

( College was being built. 

3. Complete. 

( Common Form; as, The corn has grown. 
a. Present time. < Passive Form ; as, The house is built ; John has 

( been loved. 

( Common Form ; as, The corn had grown. 
6. Past time. < Passive Form; as, The house was built; John had, 

( BEEN LOVED. 

4. Emphatic. 

a. Present time; as, The corn does grow. 

b. Past time; as, The corn did grow. 

5. Interrogative. 

a. Present time; as, Does the corn grow? 

b. Past time; as, Did the corn grow? 

6. Poetic or Solemn. 

a. Present time; as, Thou lovest; he loveth. 
a. Past time; as, Thou loved'st. 

II. Present and past time, referring to the future, 

1. Incomplete. 

Common Form; as, /"shall love; You will love. 
Progressive Form; as, /shall be loving. 
Passive Form ; as, / shall be loved, 

2. Complete. 

Common Form ; as, T shall have loved. 
Progressive Form; as, /shall have been loving. 
Passive Form; as, /shall have been loved, 

3. Poetic or Solemn. 

Th0U SHALT SLUMBER WelL 



100 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

I. Conditional Forms, 
Incomplete. 

C Common Form ; as, If he love. 

a. Present time. I Progressive Form ; as, If he be loving. 
I Passive Form; as, If he be loved. 
C Common Form; as, If he loved. 

b. Past time. < Progressive Form; as, If he were loving. 
( Passive Form; as, If he were loved. 
( Common Form; If he shall or should love. 

c. Future time J Progressive Form; If he shall or should be loving. 
(, Passive Form ; if he shall or should be loved. 

Complete. 

Common Form ; as, If he had loved. 

a. Past time. { Progressive Form ; as, If he nAD been loving, 
Passive Form; as, If he had been loved. 
Common Form; as, If he shall or should have 

loved. 

b. Future time, i Progressive Form; as, If he should have been 

LOVING. 

. Passive Form ; as, If he should have been loved. 

II. Potential Forms. 

1. Incomplete. 

( Common Form ; as, / may, can, or must love. 

a. Present time. < Progressive Form; as, /may, can, or must be loving. 

I Passive Form ; as, / may, can, or must be loved. 
'Common Form; as, / might, could, would, or 
should love. 

b. Past time. \ Progressive Form ; as, I might be loving. 
Passsive Form; as, / might, could, would, or 

SHOULD BE LOVED. 



2. Complete, 



a. Present time. 



b. Past time. 



2. Indefinite, 

Let me love. 
Love thou. 
Let him love. 



f Common Form; as, /may, can, or must have loved. 
j Progressive Form : as, / may, can, or must have 

I BEEN LOVING. [LOVED. 

I Passive Form ; as, / may, can, or must have been 
Common Form; as, / might, could, would, or 

SHOULD nAVE LOVED. 

Progressive Form ; as, / might, could, would, or 

SHOULD HAVE BEEN LOVING. 

Passive Form ; as, /might, could, would, or should 

HAVE BEEN LOVED. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

2. Emphatic. 3. Potential 



Do let me LOVE. 
Do thou LOVE. 
Do let him LOVE, 



/will love. 

May you love. 

You or he may or shall love. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 101 

LESSON XXVIL 

Infinitives and Participles. 

226. The following topics relate to the Form of the 
verb : — 

1. The Infinitives and Participles. 

2. The Formation of the Principal Parts. 

3. The Inflection and Use of Auxiliary verbs. 

4. The Forms of the Verb. 

5. Agreement in person and number. 

6. The Formation of the Tenses. 

227. Verbs are divided into, — 

I. The Finite agreeing with a subject in person and 
number (§ 127). 
II. The Participials, which include, — 

1. The Infinitives. 

2. The Participles. 

228. The Infinitives are used,— 

1. As nouns to denote the act or state expressed by the 

verb; as, To think is to act; To be loved makes 
not TO LOVE again. 

2. To denote purpose or aim ; as, He went TO SEE his 

friend ; He came TO SEEK the lost. 

3. To express futurity; as, He is to go to-morroic ; The 

day is TO ARRIVE. 

Remark 1. — The particle to, the sign of the Infinitive, was intro- 
duced into the language in the 13th century. Primarily it denotes a 
moving forward,, and at first expressed an aim or purpose, but at present 
it is an expletive, and is parsed with the verb. 

Remark 2. — After the active voice of behold, bid, dare (to venture), 
do, feel, find, have, hear, help, let, make, need, please, and see, the to of the 
Infinitive is generally omitted. No word should intervene between the 
infinitive and its sign. 

229. The Participles are used, — 

1. As Gerunds or Verbal nouns; as, Stealing is base; Keep- 
ing one's wealth is more difficult than acquiring it. 
11* 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

2* As Participial adjectives; as, A learned man; An ad- 
vancing army. 

3. With the auxiliaries have and be to conjugate the finite 
verb ; as, Me lias been loving ; He was loved. 

Kemark. — The Present participle in its gerund sense> is frequently 
Used as an adjective to express the purpose of the object denoted by the 
noun which it modifies; as, A laboring day = a day for laboring; A 
church-going be!l = a bell for church-going. 

230. The P&rtieipiats represent the affirmation of the verb 
without -the idea of time, but express the Condition of corn- 
pleteness or incompleteness. Hence, the Infinitives and Par- 
ticiples are denominated Present (incomplete) or Perfect 
(complete). 

231. The Properties of the Participials are (1.) Form and 
(2.) Condition. 

232. The Infinitives are,— *•- 

1. The Present Active; as, To love; To write. 

2. The Present Progressive; as, To be loving* 

3. The Present Passive ; as, To be loved. 

4. The Perfect Active; as, To liave loved. 

5. The Perfect Progressive; as, To have beenioving, 

6. The Perfect Passive ; as, To have been loved. 

233. The Participles are,— 

1. The Present Active; as, Loving ; Writing. 

2. The Perfect Active ; as, Having loved. 

3. The Past; as, Loved; Written; Seen. 

4. The Present Passive; as, (Being) loved* 

5. The Perfect Passive ; as, Having been loved. 

234. Rules for forming the Present Participle. 
Rule I.— If the present ends in silent e, preceded by the 
vowel i or by a consonant, change i into & 9 elide the e and suf- 
fix ingf as, give, giving ; abide, abiding $ die, crying; z;ie, 
*;ying; tie, tying; Zie, lying. 

Eemark. — The e is retained in dyeing, singeing, springeing, swingeing, 
and tingeing -to distinguish them from dying, singing, springing, swinging, 
and tinging. Hoeing, shoeing, and toeing also retain the e; eying 
drops it, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAIt. 



103 



RtfLE II. — If the present is a monosyllable ending in a single 
consonant, preceded by a short vowel, double the final consonant 
and suffix ing ; as, Run, running ; sit, sitting* 

Rule III.^-If the present is a polysyllable ending in a single 
consonant, preceded by a short vowel, and is accented on the 
ultimate, double the final consonant and annex ing; as, For- 
get, forgetting i confer, conferring ; commit, committing. 

Rule IV. — In all other cases, sufhx ing to the present without 
change; as, Command, commanding*, remember, remembering* 



Present. 
Perfect. 



Present 

Past 

Perfect. 



235, Paradigm of Infinitives and Participles. 

Infinitives. 

Active. Progressive. Passive. 

To love. to be loving* to be loved. 

To have loved* to have been loving, to have been loved* 



Active. 
Loving. 
Loved. 
Having loved 



Participles* 

Passive. 
{being) loved. 



having been loved. 

Write Paradigms of the following verbs : — 
Actj eat, freeze, go, limp, move, prize, run, sit, track, win, yell 

236. Select the Participials from the following sentences, and 
tell their uses and properties :— - 

1. Much will depend on the doctor's coming. 

2. He was justly punished for being in such company. 

3. He made them give up their spoils. 

4. Hope comes with smiles the hour of pain to cheer. 

5. True knowledge consists in knowing things, not Words* 

6. Bid him come to me. 

7. Numb'd by the piercing, freezing air, 

And burden'd by his game, 
The hunter, struggling with despair, 
Dragg'd on his shivering frame. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

LESSON XXVIIL 

Formation of tlie Principal Parts* 

237. The Principal Parts of a verb are, — 

1. The Root, called the Present. 

2. The Preterite. 

3. The Past Participle. 

238. There are two Conjugations or methods of forming 
the Preterite, viz. : — 

1. The Strong Method. 

2. The Weak Method. 

239. Strong verbs form the Preterite by changing or shorten- 
ing the vowel of the root; as, See, saw; Bite, bit; Come, came; 
Begin, began. 

240. Weak verbs form the Preterite by annexing d, t, ed, or 
the syllable ed to the root, the root vowel being sometimes 
changed ; as. Love, LOVED ; add, ADDED; think, THOUGHT; buy, 
BOUGHT. 

Remark 1. — The past participle of verbs is constituted in four ways, 
viz. : — 

1. By suffixing n or en to the root; as, See, seen; Give, given. 

2. By suffixing n or en to the preterite; as, Forgot, forgotten; Bit, 

BITTEN. 

3. Come and run, with their compounds, use the root for the past 

participle. 

4. Some strong verbs and all weak verbs, excepting the defective, 

use the preterite for the past participle. 

Remark 2. — The tendency of the English language is to change the 
strong verbs into weak ones. This is accomplished just as rapidly as the 
logical process prevails over the historical. Grammarians generally have 
ignored this distinction by treating verbs as "Regular" and "Irregular.'* 
Properly speaking, irregularities are anomalies or errors. 

241. The verbs in current use may be divided into eleven 
elasses, which are described and enumerated in the following 
sections : — 

Obsolescent and rarely used forms are printed in Halite. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



105 



242. Class I. Strong verbs, having distinct forms for each 
of the Principal Parts. 



Present 


Preterite. 


Past Participle. 


Am, or be 


was 


been 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Bear 


bore 


borne, born {passive) 


Beat 


beat 


•beaten, beat 


Beget 


begot, begat 


begotten^ begot 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Bid 


bade, bid 


bidden, bid 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Do (mis, over, un) 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Fall (be) 


fell 


fallen 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 
forbidden 


Forbid 


forbade 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgo* 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsakea 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get 


got 


gotten, got 


Give (for, mis) 


gave 


given 


Grow (out) 


grew 


grown 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Know (fore) 


knew 


known 


Lie (to recline) 


lay . 


lain 


Hide 


rode 


ridden 


Ring 


rang, rung 


xung 


Rise 


rose 


xisen 


See (fore) 


saw 


seen 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


vSlide 


slid 


slidden, slid 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 



106 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Present* 
Spit (be) 
Speak 
Steal 


Preterite. 
spat, spit 
spoke 
stole 


Past Participle, 
spiiten* spit 
spoken 
stolen 


Stride (be) 


strode, 


strid 


stridden, strid 


Strive 


strove 




striven 


Swear 


swore 




sworn 


Swim 


Swam, 


swum 


swum 


Take (be, mis, over, 
under) 


RE ' Vtook 




taken 


Tear 


tore 




torn 


Throw (over) 


threw 




thrown 


Tread 


trod 




trodden, trod 


Wear 


wore 




worn ■ 


Weave 


wove 




woven 


Write 


wrote 




written 



243. Class II. Strong verbs, having the same form for the 
Present and the Past Participle. 



Present. 


Preterite. 


Past Participle. 


Become 


became 


become 


Come 


came 


come 


Overcome 


overcame 


overcome 


Overrun 


overran 


overrun 


Outrun 


outran 


outrun 


Run 


ran 


run 


244. Class III. 


Strong verbs, 


having the same form for the 


Preterite and the Past Participle. 




Present. 


Preterite. 


Past Participle. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Behold 


beheld 


beheld, beholden (adj.) 


Bind (un, re) 


bound 


bound 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


. 


* Obsolete. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



107 



Present. 




Preterite, 


Past Participle. 


Grind 




ground 


ground 


Hold (be, up, 


with) 


held 


held, holden 


Lead (mis) 




led 


led 


Meet 




met 


met 


Read 




read 


read 


Shoot (oyer) 




shot 


shot 


Shrink 




shrunk, shrank 


shrunk, shrunken 


Sing 




sung, sang 


sung 


Sink 




sunk, sank 


sunk, sunken 


Sit 




sat 


sat 


Sling 




slung 


slung 


Slink 




slunk 


slunk 


Speed 




sped 


sped 


Spin 




spun 


spun 


Spring 




sprung 


sprung 


Stand (under, 


with) 


stood 


stood 


Stick 




stuck 


stuck 


Sting 




stung 


stung 


Stink 




stunk, stank 


stunk 


Strike 




struck 


struck, stricken (adj.) 


String 




strung 


strung, stringed (adj.) 


Swing 




swung 


swung 


Win 




won 


won 


Wind (un) 




wound 


wound 


Wring 




wrung 


wrung 


245. Class IV. St 


rong verbs, having both a Strong and a 


Weak Preterite and Past Participle. 




Present. 


Preterite. 


Past Participle. 


Awake 


awoke. 


, awaked 


awoke, awaked 


Cleave 


clove, 


cleft 


cloven, cleft 


Crow 


crew, 


crowed 


crown,* crowed 


Dig 


dug, 


digged 


dug, digged 


Eat 


ate, 


eat 


eaten, eat 


Hang 


hung, 


hanged 


hung, hanged 


Heave 


hove, 


heaved 


hoven, heaved 


Light 


lit, 


lighted 


lit, lighted 


Shine 


shone, 


shined 


shone, shined 


Stave 


stove, 


staved 


stove, staved 


Thrive 


throve 


, thrived 


thriven, thrived 






* Obsolete. 





108 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



246. Class V. Strong Verbs, having a Weak Preterite and a 



Strong Past Participle. 

Present. Preterite. 

Go went (pret. of wend) 

Forego forewent 

Rive rived 

Shew shewed 

Show 3howed 

Undergo underwent 



Past Participle. 
gone 
foregone 
riven 
shewn 
shown 
undergone 



247. Class VI • Verbs, having a Weak Preterite and a Strong 
and a Weak Past Participle. 



Present. 


Preterite. 


Past Participle. 


Bake 


baked 


baked, 


baken 


Clothe 


clothed 


clothed, 


clad 


Engrave 


engraved 


engraved, 


engraven 


Freight 


freighted 


freighted, 


fraught (pass.) 


Grave 


graved 


graved, 


graven 


Hew 


hewed 


hewed, 


hewn 


Lade 


laded 


laded, 


laden 


Load 


loaded 


loaded, 


loaden 


Melt 


melted 


melted 


molten (adj.) 


Mow 


mowed 


mowed, 


mown 


Prove 


proved 


proved, 


proven 


Saw 


sawed 


sawed, 


sawn 


Seethe 


seethed 


seethed, 


sodden 


Shape (mis) 


shaped 


shaped, 


shapen 


Shave (un) 


shaved 


shaved, 


shaven 


Sow 


sowed 


sowed, 


sown 


Shear 


sheared 


sheared, 


shorn 


Strow 


strowed 


strowed, 


strown 


Swell 


swelled 


swelled 


swollen, swoln 


Wax 


waxed 


waxed, 


waxen 



248. Class Til. Weak Verbs, which form their Preterite and 
their Past Participle by changing or shortening the vowel of the 
Present, and annexing d or t. 

Present, Preterite. Past Participle. 

Beseech besought besought 

Bring brought brought 

Buy bought bought 

Catch caught caught 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



109 



Present. 


Preterite. 


Past Participle 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Peal 


dealt 


dealt 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


♦Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Teach (mis, un) 


taught 


taught 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Weep 


wept 


wept 



249. Class VIII. Weak Verbs, ending in the sound of d or 
t 9 generally form their Preterite and Past Participle by annex- 
ing the syllable ed to the Present; as, Add, added; Wed, 
wedded; Whet, whetted. 

Exception 1. — Lend, rend, send, spend, and misspend form their 
Preterite and Past Participle by changing their final d into t; as, 
Lend, lent; rend, rent; send, sent, spend, spent. 

Exception 2. — Bend, bet, blend, build, gild, gird (be, en, un), knit, 
quit, slit, spit, sweat, and wet are redundant. See Class X. 

Exception 3. — The following verbs use the same form for each 
of the principal parts, viz.: Burst, cast, cost, cut, hit, hurt, let, put 
rid, set (re-set), shed, shred, shut, spread, and thrust. 

250. Class IX. Weak Verbs, not ending in the sound of d 
or t, generally form their Preterite and Past Participle by annex- 
ing d, ed, or t to the Present; as, Cleave (to adhere), cleaved ; 
climb, climbed; Lie (to speak falsely), lied; ring (to encircle), 
ringed; delay, delayed; drown, drowned; love, loved 

Remark 1. — Lay, pay, say, and their compounds, change y into i, and 
annex d; as, Lay, laid; pay, paid ; say, said. 

Remark 2. — Have and make drop the final consonant, and annex d ; 
as, make, made ; have, had. 

12 



110 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Remark 3. — After p. t, ch (soft), k,f, £A (aspirate), 88, and sh, ed is pro- 
nounced like t. 



251. Class X. The following verbs are Redundant: — 


Present. 


Preterite. 


Past Participle 


Bend 


bent, bended 


bent, bended 


Bereave 


bereft, bereaved 


bereft, bereaved 


Bet 


bet, betted 


bet, betted 


Blend 


blended, blent 


blended, blent 


Bless 


blessed 


blessed, blest 


Build 


builded, built 


builded, built 


Burn 


burnt, burned 


burnt, burned 


Bare 


durst (to venture), dared 


dared 


Dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreamed, dreamt 


Dress 


dressed, drest 


dressed, drest 


Dwell 


dwelt, dwelled 


dwelt, dwelled 


Gild 


gilded, gilt 


gilded, gilt 


Gird (be, en, un) 


girt, girded 


girt, girded 


Kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


Knit 


knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 


Learn (un) 


learned, learnt 


learned, learnt 


Mean 


meant, meaned 


meant, meaned 


Pen 


penned, pent 


penned, pent 


Quit 


quitted, quit 


quitted, quit 


Slit 


slit, slitted 


slit, slitted 


Smell 


smelt, smelled 


smelt, smelled 


Spell (mis) 


spelled, spelt 


spelled, spelt 


Spill 


spilled, spilt 


spilled, spilt 


Split 


split, splitted 


split, splitted 


Spoil 


spoiled, spoilt 


spoiled, spoilt 


Stay 


staid, stayed 


staid, stayed 


Sweat 


sweat, sweated 


sweat, sweated 


"Wet 


wet, wetted 


wet, wetted 


Work 


worked, wrought 


worked, wrought 


252. Class XI. The following verbs 


are Defective; — 


Present. 


Preterite. 


Past Participle. 


Beware 


wanting 


wanting 


Can 


could 


wanting 


May- 


might 


wanting 


Must 


must 


wanting 


Ought 


ought 


wanting 


Wanting 


quoth (1st and 3d sing 


.,) wanting 


Shall 


should 


wanting 


Will 


would 


wanting 


Wis 


wist 


wanting 


Wit or wot 


wot 


wanting 



Worth (Imperative) wanting 



wanting 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ill 

LESSON XXX. 
Auxiliary Yerbs. 

253. An Auxiliary verb is a verb used to conjugate 
another verb. 

254. The auxiliary verbs are do, be, have, shall, will, 
may 9 can, must, and let. 

Remark 1. — Do, be,have, and let are sometimes used as principal verbs; 
as, J have it; He did it; I am that I am; Thou lettest thy fortune sleep. 

Remark 2. — When the principal verb has been mentioned in the pre- 
ceding part of a complex sentence, or in an interrogative sentence, it is 
sometimes represented by the auxiliary verb alone; as, As the door 
turneth upon its hinges, so doth the slothful man upon his bed ; Did he 
write? Ans. He did, 

255. Have is used to form the Present Perfect and Future 
Perfect Tenses; as, /HAVE written; I shall HAVE written. 

Had is used to form the Past Perfect Tense; as, / had 
written. 

256. Do is used in the Present Indicative and Imperative, 
and did in the Past Indicative to express emphasis. In inter- 
rogative sentences, do and did denote inquiry; as, I DO write; 
Do come; He did come; Did he come? How do you do? 

Remark. — Do and did do not always express emphasis. Sometimes 
these auxiliaries are the mere signs of tenses, and are used to promote 
the rhythm of the sentence; as, — 

" I, as iEneas, our great ancestor, 
Did from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder 
The old Anchises bear, so from the waves of Tiber 
Did I the tired Caesar. * * * * 
He had a fever when he was in Spain, 
And, when the fit was on him, I did mark 
How he did shake; 'tis true, this god did shake; 
His coward lips did from their color fly: 
And that same eye, whose bend doth awe the world, 
Did lose its lustre. I did hear him groan. " 

257. Be, as an auxiliary, is used to form the Progressive and 
Passive Forms; as, /am loving; /am loved 

Remark I.— Be is generally used as a Copulative verb, and shows that 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the noun or adjective which follows it denotes some attribute of the 
object represented by its subject; as, Man is mortal; Longfellow is a 
poet. 

Remark 2. — Be is also sometimes used as an Intransitive verb; as, 
There is a God; Time was, but time shall be no more, 

258. The auxiliaries sfrail and will relate to future time, 
and express determination. This determination originates in 
the speaker or person addressed, in the object denoted by the 
subject, or in some other power. 

Shall- generally expresses determination as originating in 
the speaker. In the first person, shall simply foretells; in 
the second and the third persons, it expresses a command, a 

PROMISE, Or a THREAT. 

Will expresses determination as originating in the object 
denoted by its subject. In the first person, will expresses a 
promise or a threat; in the second and the third persons, it 
simply FORETELLS. 

Remark: 1. — In declarative sentences, shall is used in the first person, 
and will in the second and the third persons, to express future time; 
as, / shall go, thou wilt go, he will go. 

Remark 2. — In Interrogative sentences, shall in the first and the third 
persons expresses something depending on the will of the person 
addressed; as, Shall he and I go f== Will you permit us to go ? 

Remark 3. — In Complex sentences, in which the language of the 
object denoted by the subject of the principal verb is given, shall foretells, 
and will promises in the second and the third persons; as, You say you 
shall go ; he says he shall go ; You say you will go ; He says he will go. 

Remark 4. — In Conditional clauses, shall, in the third person, and 
should in all the persons, express mere future contingency; as, If he 
shall go, I will go with him; If it should snow to-morrow, I could not 
come. 

Remark 5. — In solemn or poetic language, shall is used in the second 
and the third persons to express something as inevitable; as, — 

" Where the amber-drops for thee shall weep, 
And the rose-lipped shell its music keep, 
There thou shalt slumber well." 

Remark 6. — Should expresses obligation; as, You should study dili- 
gently. 

Remark 7. — Should and would are sometimes used to soften the form 
of expression; as, It would seem so for It seems so; -Tshoxld think so for 
I think so. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 113 

Remark 8. — Sad is used for would or would have ; as, J had rather be a 
doorkeeper j If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died. 
" I had as lief not be, as live to be 
In awe of such a thing as I myself." 

259. May and can express capability. 

260. May expresses capability depending on some other power 
than the object denoted by its subject. When that power is the 
speaker or person addressed, permission or desire is expressed; 
but when it is some other power, the auxiliary expresses con- 
tingency. Examples : — 

Permission ; as, You MAY go. 

Desire; as, May he return! 

Contingency ; as, He MAY (possibly) come to-morrow. 

261. Can expresses capability depending on the object 
denoted by its subject; as, He can write ; They can swim. 

262. Must expresses something which is regarded as neces- 
sary Or essential; as, We must all die; He MUST be checked; 
Yon MUST study, if you would improve. 

263. Let is used to form the first and the third persons 
of the Imperative; as, Let me die the death of the righteous! 
Let there be light 

Remark 1. — Let, when it means to permit, to allow or not to hinder, is 
not an auxiliary, but a principal verb; as, Let me go = I)o not hinder my 
going ; Let him stay = Permit him to stay. 

Remark 2. — Let is used as an auxiliary to translate the first person 
of the Subjunctive and the third person of the Imperative of the Latin 
and Greek. When thus used it has no subject, and seems to be an ex- 
pletive; as, Let not your heart be troubled, 

12* 



114 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XXXI. 

Forms of the Verb. 

265. The Finite Verb has ten Forms, viz.: — 

(1.) The Common Form; as, He writes; he WROTE. 

(2.) The Emphatic Form; as, He does write; he did 

write. 
(3.) The Progressive Form; as, He is writing; he was 

WRITING. 

(4.) The Passive Form; as, The letter is written. 

(5.) The Progresso-Passive Form; as, The letter is BEING 

WRITTEN. 

(6.) The Interrogative Form; as, Does he write? did he 

WRITE? 

(7.) The Solemn Form ; as, Thou writest; he writeth. 
(8.) The Conditional Form; as, If he write; had he 

WRITTEN. 

(9.) The Potential Form; as, — 



He i 



r MAY 




MIGHT 


CAN 




COULD 


MUST 


> < 




WILL 




WOULD 


<. SHALL J 




I SHOULD 



Y WRITE, HAVE WRITTEN. 



(10.) The Imperative Form; as, — 

1st Person. Let me write ; let us write. 
2d Person. John, write ; Boys, write. 
3d Person. Let him write ; let them write. 

Remark. — Active verbs are of three kinds, viz. : — 

1. TRANSITIVE verbs, the action of which affects the object repre- 
sented by the complement; as, John struck William. 

2. REFLEXIVE verbs, of which the subject and complement repre- 
sent the same object; as, John struck himself. 

3 CAUSATIVE verbs, the action of which produces the thing repre- 
sented by the complement ; as, John tvrote a letter. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 115 

266. The Coniinon form represents the attribute as 
indefinite, incomplete or complete, but not progressive or 
passive. 

267. The Emphatic form expresses emphasis. 

Remark. — It is used in the present and past tenses, and is formed by 
placing the auxiliaries do or did before the present infinitive, the sign 
to being omitted. 

268. The Progressive form expresses something as 
continuing to take place. 

Remark. — It is formed by annexing the present active participle 

to the various forms of the verb to be. 

269. The Passive form expresses passivity or condition. 

Remark. — It is formed by annexing the present passive participle 

to the various forms of the verb to be. 

270. The Progresso-Passive form is that form of a 
Causative verb which asserts that the object denoted by its 
subject is being produced; as, The house is being built. 

Remark. — It inserts being before the participle of the passive form. 

271. The Interrogative form expresses inquiry. 

Remark. — It places the subject after the auxiliary. Do is used as an 
interrogative particle; as, How do you do? 

272. The Solemn form is used in the Scriptures, in 
poetry, and in prayer. 

Remark. — It is formed by suffixing th or eth to the root for the third 
person singular of the present indicative, and suffixes st, t, or est for the 
second person singular of all the tenses. 

273. The Conditional form expresses contingency, or 
a conception of the mind. 

Remark. — It uses the Present (root) without change for the present 
tense, and the Plural of the Preterite for the past tense, the second 
person singular suffixing t or st. 

274. The Potential forms express capability, contin- 
gency, determination, or obligation. 

Remark. — The potential forms employ the auxiliaries may, might; 
can, could; must; will, would; shall, should, with the infinitive, the 
sign to being omitted. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

275. The Imperative form expresses something de- 
pendent on the will of the speaker.* 

Remark 1. — It is formed by using let in the first and third 
persons and the infinitive without to in the second, person. 

Remark 2. — Shall, will and may (when it expresses permission) 
are used in Imperative sentences, as follows, viz : 

1st Person. Will or let; as, /will go; let me go. 

2d Person. The Infinitive (to omitted), shall or may ; as, Go ; 

thou shalt not steal; you may go. 

3d Person. l«et, shall or may; as, Let him go; he shall go; he 
may go. 

276. Exercise. 

Analyze the following sentences , and tell the mode, tense and 
form of each verb. 

1. If I were discoursing of my nation abroad, I should be 
glad of that merit in my countrymen which now displeases me. 

2. What would I have you do? I'll tell you, kinsman: learn 
to be wise, and practise how to thrive; that would I have you 
do ; and not to spend your coin on every bauble that you fancy. 

3. Wake your harp's music ! — louder, — higher, 

And pour your strains along; 
And smite again each quivering wire, 
In all the pride of song ! 

4. Ho, all who labor, — all who strive ! 

Ye wield a lofty power ; 
Do with your might, do with your strength. 
Fill every golden hour ! 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 117 

LESSON XXXI. 

Formation of the Second and Third Persons Singular. 

277. The finite verb has three persons and two numbers. 
The only inflection which English verbs undergo in order 
to express person and number is the suffixing of t, st, or est 
to the Present or Preterite to form the second person sin- 
gular of the Solemn or Conditional forms, and of s or es, 
and th or eth, to the Present to form the third person sin- 
gular of the Common and Solemn forms of the present 
indicative. The verb to be is irregular in the present and 
past tenses. 

1. To form the third person singular of the common form 
of the present indicative. 

a. If the Present (root) ends in ge, ch y ss, zz, sh, or x, annex 

the syllable es; as, I judge*, he judges; I search, he 
searcJiES) Hie fly buzzES) The serpent hissES} He 
crushES) He mix ES. 

b. If the Present (root) ends in y. preceded by a consonant, 

change the y into i and suffix es; as, Cry, he crtES. 

c. The verbs do and go suffix es; as, He doES) he goES. 

d. Have drops ve, and suffixes s; as, Has. 

e. In all other cases, s only is suffixed; as, He loves; lie 

walks. 

Exception. — The auxiliaries shall, will, may, can, must, and the 
word dare (to challenge) when not followed by a noun, do not 
take s. 

2. To form the third person singular of the Solemn form of 
the present indicative, — 

a. If the Present (root) ends in ?/, preceded by a consonant, 
change y into i, and suffix cth ; as, Cry, he crrETH. 

* Note. — The silent e of verbs is dropped when a syllable is suffixed. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

b. Have drops ve, and suffixes th; as, He AaTH; She AaTH 

loved. 

c. Doth is used as an auxiliary verb, and doETR as a principal 

verb; as, He doeth all things well; He doth love. 

d. In all other cases, the syllable eth is suffixed, silent e being 

dropped 
3. To form the second person singular of the Solemn and 
Conditional forms. 

a. The syllable est is generally suffixed to the Present (root) 

and the Preterite of principal verbs; as, Thou seeST: 
thou sawEST ; thou singEST', thou sangEST. 

Remark 1. — Generally after p, d, and k, preceded by a short vowel, st 
only is suffixed; as, Drop, dropsT; Did,didsT; Look, IooJcst. 

Remark 2. — After ed of the preterite, the e of est is elided, and the two 
suffixes coalesce and form a distinct syllable; as, Called, calledsT; Loved, 
lovedsr. 

Remark 3. — Durst is unchanged; as, Thou durst not attempt it. 

b. The auxiliaries — 

Are and were drop e, and suffix t; as, ArT, werT. 

Shall and will drop one I, and suffix t; as, ShalT, wilT. 

Was suffixes t; as,wasT. 

Have drops ve, and suffixes st; as, HaST. 

Must is unchanged; as, Thou must die. 

May and might suffix est; as, Thou MAYEST go; Thou 

mighfEST come. 
Can, could, would, should, had, do, and did suffix st; 

as, CanST, couldsT, wouldST, shoiddsT, hadsT, doST, 

did ST. 

Remark. — Do, as a principal verb, suffixes est ; as, Thou doEST right. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 119 



LESSON XXXII. 

Formation of the Tenses of the Indicative Mode. 

278. The six tenses of the Indicative Mode are formed 
as follows: — 

279. The Present Tense. 

a. The present tense of the Common Form is the Present 
form of the verb, to which s is annexed to form the third person 
singular of the Indicative Mode. 

5. The Emphatic Form uses do, do, does, do, do, do, with the 
Present form of the verb; as, — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person. I do love, We do love. 

2d Person, You do love, You do love. 

3d Person. He does love, They do love. 

c. The Progressive Form uses am, are, is, are, are, are, with 
the Present Active Participle; as, — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person. I am loving, We are loving. 

2d Person. You are loving, You are loving. 

3d Person. He is loving, They are loving. 

d. The Passive Form uses am, are, is, are, are, are, with tb.3 
Past Participle of the verb; as, — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person. I am loved, We are loved. 

2d Person. You are loveu, You are loved. 

3d Person. He is loved, They are loved. 

Remark. — All the other tenses of the Progressive and Passive Forms 
use the proper tense-form of the verb to be with the Present Active 
and the Past Participle, respectively. 

e. The Solemn Form is used only in the second and third 
persons singular and the second person plural. The pronoun 
thou is used in the second person singular, and ye in the second 
person plural. 



120 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



280. The Past Tense. 

The Past Tense uses the Preterite for the Common Porm, and the 
Preterite of the auxiliaries in the other forms ; as, — 



1st Per. Sing. 
2d Per. Sing. 
3d Per. Sing. 



Common. 
I saw, 
You saw, 
He saw, 



Emphatic. 
I did see. 
You did see. 
He did see. 



Progressive. 
I was seeing, 
You wore seeing. 
He wa> teeing, 



Passive. 
I was seen. 
You were seen. 
He was seen. 






1st Per. Plur. We saw, We did see. We were seeing. We were seen. 

2d Per. Plur. You saw. You did see. You were seeing, You were seen. 

3d Per. Plur. They saw, They did see. They were seeing, They were seen. 

281. The Future Tense. 

The Future Tense uses the auxiliary shall in thejftrst person, an£ 
will in the second and the third persons, with the Present Form 
of the verb; as, — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person. I shall iove, We shall love. 

2d Pent*, You will love, You will love. 

3d Person, ne will love, They will love. 

Remark. — Should and would are used for shall and will in a subordinate 
clause after a past tense; as, He said tliat he would go. 

282. The Present Perfect, Past Perfect, and Future 

Perfect Tenses. 

a. The Present Perfect tense is formed by annexing the participles 
to the auxiliary have; as, — 





Common. 




Progressive. 


Passive. 


1st Per. Sing. 


I have 


loved. 


been loving. 


been loved. 


2d Per. Sing. 


Thou hast 


loved. 


been loving. 


beat loved. 


3d Per. Sing. 


Ho has 


loved. 


been loving. 


been loved. 


Plural. 


We, &c, have 


loved. 


been loving. 


been loved. 



b. The Past Perfect tense is formed by annexing the participles to 
the auxiliary had ; as, — 





Common. 




Progressive. 


Passive. 


1st Per. Sing. 


I hart 


loved. 


been loving. 


been loved. 


2d Per. Sing. 


Thou hadst 


loved. 


been loving. 


been loved. 


3d Per. Sing. 


TTe had 


loved. 


been loving. 


been loved. 


Plural. 


We, &c., had 


loved. 


been loving. 


been loved. 



c. The Future Perfect tense is formed by annexing the participles 
to the auxiliaries shall and will combined with have; as, — 

Progressive. Passive. 



1st Per. Sing. 
2d Per. Sing. 



Common. 
I shall have loved. 
Tbou wilt have loved. 



been loving. 
been loving. 



been loved, 
been loved. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



121 



283. Paradigm of the Infinitives, Participles, and all the 
Tenses and Forms of the Indicative Mode of the verb JLove. 







Infinitives. 






A ctive. 


Progressive. 


Passive. 


Present. 


To love, 


To be loving, 


To be loved. 


Perfect 


To have loved, 


To have been loving, 

Participles. 


To have been loved. 




Active* 




Passive. 


Present 


Loving, 




(Being) loved. 


Past. 


Loved, 






Perfect 


Having loved 


Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 


Having been loved. 




Common. 


Progressive. 


Passive. 


1st per. Sing. 


I love, 


I am loving, 


I am loved. 


2d per. Sing. 


You love, 


You are loving, 


You are loved. 


3d per. Sing. 


He loves, 


He is loving, 


He is loved. 


1st per. Plur 


We love, 


We are loving, 


We are loved. 


2d per. Plur, 


You love, 


You are loving, 


You are loved. 


3d per. Plur 


They love, 


They are loving, 

Fmpliatic Form. 


They are loved 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1st person. 


I do love, 




We do love. 


2d person. 


You do love, 




You do love. 


3d person. 


He does love, 


Solemn Form. 


They do love. 


Forms. 


2d Person Sing. 


3d Person Sing. 


2d Person Plur. 


Common. 


Thou Invest, 


He loveth, 


Ye love. 


Progressive. 


Thou art loving 


i 


Ye are loving. 


Passive. 


Thou art loved, 




Ye are loved. 


Emphatic. 


Thou dost love, 


He doth love, 

Past Tense. 


Ye do love. 




CoVMtlOTl. 


Progressive. 


Passive. 


1st per. Sing. 


I loved, 


I was loving, 


I was loved. 


2d per. Sing. 


You loved, 


You were loving, 


You were loved. 


3d per. Sing. 


He loved, 


He was loving, 


He was loved. 


1st per. Plur. 


We loved, 


We were loving, 


We were loved. 


2d per. Plur. 


You loved, 


You were loving, 


You were loved. 


3d per. Plur. 


They loved, 


They were loving, 


They were Joved. 




K 


u 





122 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1st Person. 
2d Person. 
3d Person. 



Common. 
Progressive. 



Singular. 
I did love, 
You did love, 
He did love, 



Emphatic, 



Plural. 
We did love. 
You did love. 
They did love. 



Solemn Form, 2d Person. Singular. 

Thou lovedst. Passive. Thou wast loved. 

Thou wast loving. Emphatic. Thou didst love. 



1st per. Sing. 
2d per. Sing. 
3d per. Sing. 



Common. 
I shall love, 
You will love, 
He will love, 



1st per. Plur. "We shall love, 
2d per. Plur. You will love, 
3d per. Plur. The}' will love, 



Future Tense* 

Progressive. 
I shall be loving, 
You will be loving, 
He will be loving, 
We shall be loving, 
You will be loving, 
They will be loving, 



Passive. 
I shall be loved. 
You will be loved. 
He will be loved. 
We shall be loved. 
You will be loved. 
They will be loved. 



Present Perfect Tense, 



1st per. Sing. 
2d per. Sing. 
3d per. Sing. 
1st per. Plur. 
2d per. Plur. 
3d per. Plur. 



Common. 
I have loved, 
You have loved, 
He has loved, 
We have loved, 
You have loved, 
They have loved, 



Progressive. 
I have been loving, 
You have been loving, 
He has been loving, 
We have been loving, 
You have been loving, 
They have been loving, 



Passive. 
I have been loved. 
You have been loved. 
He has been loved, 
We have been loved. 
You have been loved. 
They have been loved. 



1st per. Sing. 
2d: per. Sing. 
3d per. Sing. 
1st per. Plur. 
2d per. Plur. 
3d per. Plur. 



Past 

Common. 
I had loved, 
You had loved, 
He had loved, 
We had loved, 
You had loved, 
They had loved, 



Perfect Tense. 

Progressive. 
I had been loving, 
You had been loving, 
He had been loving, 
We had been loving, 
You had been loving. 
They had been loving, 



Passive. 
I had been loved. 
You had been loved. 
He had been loved. 
We had been loved. 
You had been loved. 
They had been- loved. 



Future Perfect Tense. 



1st per. Sing. 
2d per. Sing. 
3d per. Sing. 
1st per. Plur. 
2d per. Plur. 
3d per. Plur. 



1st Person. 
2d Person. 
3d Person. 



Common. 
I shall have loved, 
You will have loved, 
He will have loved, 
We shall have loved, 
You will have loved, 
They will have loved, 

Passive Form. 

Singular. > 

I shall have been loved. 
You will have been loved. 
He will have been loved. 



Progressive. 
I shall have been loving. 
You will have been loving. 
He will have been loving. 
We shall have been loving. 
You will have been loving. 
They will have been loving. 



Plural. 
We shall have been loved. 
You will have been loved. 
They will have been loved. 



1NGLISH GRAMMAR. 123 



LESSON XXXIIL 

Formation of the Tenses of the Subjunctive and Im- 
perative Modes, 

284. The Subjunctive Mode has two forms, viz. : The 
Conditional and the Potential. 

285. The Conditional Forms employ the root of the verh 
without change in the present tense, and the Plural of the Pre- 
terite in the past tense. The Futures also differ from the indi- 
cative in the auxiliaries used. The forms of the Present-Perfect 
tense are not conditional. 

Remark 1. — The Present tense expresses a condition which may be 
realized ; as, If he be careful, he will succeed ; Though you be rich, you will 
have wants. 

Remark 2. — The Past tense expresses a mere wish, or a supposition 
which cannot be realized; as, If /were you, I would improve my time; 
Oh I that I were young! 

Remark 3. — The Past Perfect tense expresses a supposition which was 
not realized; as, Had I known it sooner, I had not gone; Had he been 
careful, it would not have happened. 

286. The Potential forms are used in the Present, the Past, 
the Present-Perfect, and the Past-Perfect tenses. 

287. The Present and Present-Perfect tenses are formed 
by annexing the present and perfect infinitives respectively to 
the auxiliaries may, can, or must; as, I may love; I may have 
loved. 

288. The Past and Past-Perfect tenses are formed by 
annexing the present and perfect infinitives respectively to the 
auxiliaries might, could, would, or should; as, / might love; 1 
might have loved. 

289. The Imperative Mode has two forms, viz. : The 
IMPERATIVE and the POTENTIAL. 



124: 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



246. Paradigm of the verb love in the Subjunctive Mode. 



1st Per. Sing. 

2d Per. Sing. 

3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plur. 



1st Per. Sing. 

2d Per. Sing. 

3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plur. 



1st Per. Sing. 

2d Per. Sing. 

3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plur. 



1st Per. Sing. 

2d Per. Sing. 

3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plur. 



1st Per. Sing. 
2d Per. 



3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plur. 

R.EMARK.- 

placed after 



CONDITIONAL, FORMS. 

Present Tense. 

Common. Progressive. 

If I love, If I be loving, 

If thou love, f If thou be loviny, 

. If you love, 1 If you be loving, 

If he love, If he be loving, 

If we love, , If we be loving, 

If you love, If you be loving, 

If they love, If they be loving. 

Past Tense. 

Progressive. 
If I were loving, 
( If thou wert loving, 
X If you were loving, 
If he were loving, 
If we were loving, 
If you were loving, 
If they were loving, 



Common. 
If I loved, 
If thou lovedst, 
If you loved, 
If he loved, 
If we loved, 
If you loved, 
If they loved, 



Past Perfect Tense. 



Common. 
If I had loved, 
rlf thou hadst loved, 
( If you had loved, 
If he had loved, 
If we had loved, 
If you had loved, 
If they had loved, 



Progressive. 
If I had been loving, 
If thou hadst been loving, 
If you had been loving, 
If he had been loving, 
If we had been loving, 
If you had been loving, 
If they had been loving, 



Future Tense. 



I If 



Common. 
If I should love, 
If thou shouldst love, 

you should love. 
If he shall or should love, 
If we should love, 
If you should love, 
If they shall or should love, 



Progressive, 
be loving, 
be loving, 
be loving, 
be loving, 
be loving, 
be loving, 
be loving, 



Future Perfect Tense. 



Passive, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved. 



Passive, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved. 



Passive, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved. 

Passive, 
be loved, 
be loved, 
be loved, 
be loved, 
be loved, 
be loved, 
be loved. 



Common. Progressive. Passive. 

If I should have loved, been loving, been loved. 

f If thou shouldst have loved, been loving, been loved. 

I If you should have loved, been loving, been loved. 

If he shall or should have loved, been loving, been loved. 

If we should have loved, been loving, been loved. 

If you should have loved, been loving, been loved. 

If they shall or should have loved, been loving, been loved. 

-Sometimes the Conjunction is omitted, when the subject is 
the auxiliary ; as, Were I loved ; Had I loved. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



125 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. POTENTIAL, FORMS. 



1st Per. Sing. 
2d Per. Sing. 

3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
Sd Per. Plur. 



1st Per. Sing. 

2d Per. Sing. 

3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plur. 

1st Per. Sing. 

2d Per. Sing. 

3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plur. 

1st Per. Sing. 

2d Per. Sing. 

3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plur. 



1st Per. Sing. 
2d Per. Sing. 

3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plur. 

1st Per. Sing. 
2d Per. Sing. 

3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plur. 



Progressive. 


Passive 


be loving, 


be loved. 


be loving, 


be loved. 


be loving, 


be loved. 


be loving, 


be loved. 


be loving, 


be loved. 


be loving, 


be loved. 


be loving, 


be loved. 



Present Tense. 

Common. 
I may, can, or must love, 
f Thou mayest, canst, or must love, 
\ You may, can, or must love, 
lie may, can, or must love, 
We may, can, or must love, 
You may, can, or must love, 
They may, can, or must love, 



Past Tense. 

Common. 

I might, could, would, or should love. 
/Thou mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love. 
I You might, could, would, or should love. 

He might, could, would, or should love. 

We might, could, would, or should love. 

You might, could, would, or should love. 

They might, could, would, or should love. 

Progressive. 

I might, could, would, or should be loving. 
/ Thou mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be loving. 
1 You might, could, would, or should be loving. 

He might, could, would, or should be loving. 

We might, could, would, or should be loving. 

You might, could, would, or should be loving. 

'They might, could, would, or should be loving. 

Passive. 

I might, could, would, or should be loved. 
(Thou mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be loved, 
t You might, could, would, or should be loved. 

He might, could, would, or should be loved. 

We might, could, would, or should be loved. 

You might, could, would, or should be loved. 

They might, could, would, or should be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Common. 

I may, can, or must have loved. 
/Thou mayest, canst, or must have loved. 
I You may, can, or must have loved. 

He may, can, or must have loved. 

We may, can, or must have loved. 

You may, can, or must have loved. 

They may, can, or must have loved. 

Progressive. 
I may, can, or must have been loving, 
/Thou mayest, canst, or must have been loving, 
X You may, can, or must have been loving, 
He may, can, or must have been loving, 
We may, can, or must have been loving, 
You may, can, or must have been loving, 
They may, can, or must have been loving, 
13* 



Passive, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved, 
loved. 



126 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1st Per. Sing. 

2d Per. Sing. 

3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plur. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

Common. 

I might, could, would, or should have loved. 
/Thou mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have loved, 
i You might, could, would, or should have loved, 

He might, could, would, or should have loved. 

We might, could, would, or should have loved. 

You might, could, would, or should have loved. 

They might, could, would, or should have loved. 



1st Per. Sing. . 

2d Per. Sing. 

3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plnr. 



Progressive. 

I might, could, would, or should have heen loving. 
/ Thou mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been loving. 
1 You might, could, would, or should have been loving. 

He might, could, would, or should have been loving. 

"We might, could, would, or should have been loving. 

You might, could, would, or should have been loving. 

They might, could, would, or should have been loving. 



1st Per. Sing. 

2d Per. Sing. 

3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plur. 



Passive. 

I might, could, would, or should have been loved. 
/Thou mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been loved. 
I You might, could, would, or should have been loved. 

He might, could, would, or should have been loved. 

We might, could, would, or should have been loved. 

You might, could, would, or should have been loved. 

They might, could, would, or should have been loved. 



291. Paradigm of the verb Ijove in the Imperative 
Mode. 

IMPERATIVE FORMS. 



1st Per. Sing. 
2d Per. Sing. 
3d Per. Sing. 
1st Per. Plur. 
2d Per. Plur. 
3d Per. Plur. 



Common. 
Let me love, 
Love thou, 
Let him love, 
Let us love, 
Love ye, 
Let them love, 



Progressive. 
Let me be loving, 
Be thou loving, 
Let him be loviug, 
Let us be loving, 
Be ye loving, 
Let them be loving, 



Passive. 
Let me be loved. 
Be thou loved. 
Let him be loved. 
Let us be loved. 
Be ye loved. 
Let them be loved 



POTENTIAL FORMS, 





Common. 


Progressive. 


Passive. 


1st Per. Sing. 


I will love, 


be loving, 


be loved. 


2d Per. Sing. 


Thou may est or shalt love, 


be loving, 


be loved. 


3d Per. Sing. 


He may or shall love, 


be loving, 


be loved. 


1st Per. Plur. 


We will love, 


be loving, 


Jk loved. 


2d Per. Plur. 


You may or shall love, 


be loving, 


beloved. 


3d Per. Plur. 


He may or shall love, 


be loving, 


be loved 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



127 



COMPLEX, COMPOUND, CONTRACTED, AND 
ABRIDGED SENTENCES. 



LESSON XXXIV. 

Classification of Sentences. Propositions. 

292. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. It 
includes the arrangement, agreement and government of 
words used to express thought, sentiment or volition. 

Remark 1.— The English language being elaborated from Saxon and 
Norman elements, was changed from a synthetic to an analytic language, 
and hence the relations of words are determined partly by the form 
and partly by juxtaposition. 

Remark 2. Agreement is correspondence of form arising from a 

correlation of ideas. 

Remark 3.— Government is the power one word has of deter- 
mining the form of another word 

293. A Sentence is a mental act expressed in words ; 
as, The air bites shrewdly ; Revenge his foul and most 
unnatural murder; that I were as in days of old! 

294. Sentences are classed 

I. According to Signification. 
II. According to Rank. 
III. According to Form. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

295. Sentences, according to signification, are divided into 

1/ Propositions. 
11/ Postulates. 

296. A Proposition is a judgment expressed in words; 
as, Ccesar was a tyrant. 

297. There are three kinds of Propositions, viz: 

1. Categorical. 

2. Hypothetical. 

3. Modal. 

2 93. A Categorical Proposition is one in which the 
attribute is absolutely affirmed or denied of its subject ; 
as, John is good; Mary sings. 

Note 1. — The vital principle of all language is thought, the primitive 
quality of which is affirmative. "When the thought is to be made nega- 
tive, a particle or phrase is used. Adverbs of Modality (§177, VI), and 
the words and phrases in the following notes, indicating, as they do, 
either the quality of the thought expressed or the degree of the affirma- 
tion or negation, are the only proper thought elements of our lan- 
guage. These words are generally classed as adverbs, but are properly 
INTENSIVES. 

Note 2. — The degree of affirmation or negation is expressed as 
follows, viz : 

1. As an appendage to another affirmation. 

a. Words. 

Again, also, ay or aye, further, howbeit, however, likewise, 
moreover, namely (to wit, viz.), notwithstanding, now, too, 
why, well, yea, yes, and adverbs of order, viz : First, secondly, 
&c, &c. 

b. Phrases. 

As a matter of course, as it were, at all events, by chance, 
for the most part, generally speaking, in general, in the first 
place, in the meantime, in a word, in a measure, in that case, 
no doubt, now and then, of course, on the contrary, on the 
one hand, on the other hand, to be brief, to be sure. 

2. As an appendage to a negation, 
a. Words: Nay, nay verily. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 129 

3. As indicating a conclusion [illative). 

a. Words. 

Accordingly, consequently, finally, then, therefore. 

b. Phrases. 

In fine, at length. 

4. As expressing emphasis affirmatively. 

a. Words. 

Certainly, doubtless, indeed, really, surely, truly, undoubt- 
edly, unquestionably, verily. 

b. Phrases. 

Above all, beyond a doubt, beyond a question, in fact, in 
particular, in reality, in truth, without doubt, without ques- 
tion. 

5. As expressing emphasis negatively. 

a. Words. 

No, not, almost. 

b. Phrases. 

By no means, in no wise, not at all, and all phrases of which 
no or not forms a part. 

299. A Hypothetical Proposition consists of two 
clauses, one of which depends on the other, and expresses 
an assumption, condition or supposition; as, Unless you 
DO better, you will lose your situation. 

Note 1. — There are two varieties of hypothetical propositions, viz: 

a. Conditional: If the wind changes, it will snow. 

b. Disjunctive: He was either murdered, or else committed suicide. 

Note 2. — The auxiliaries might, could, woidd and should are used in 
conditional sentences. 

300. A Modal Proposition is one that expresses a mere 
conception of the mind; as, He may (possibly) come; John 
CAN write. 

Note 1 — The various degrees of uncertainty are expressed as fol- 
lows, viz: 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a. Possibility. 

Possibly, perchance, perhaps, peradventure, and the auxil- 
iary can. 

b. Probability. 

Likely, probably, and the auxiliary may. 

c. Necessity. 

Necessarily, and the auxiliary must. 

301. Exercise. 

Tell the Jcind^ and define each of the following propositions. 

1. Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 

2. An elementary sound is one of the simplest sounds of the 
language. 

3. If Yirgil was the better artist, Homer was the greater 
genius. 

4. Men may be deceived. 

5. Rome was not built in one day. 

6. There is a mourner o'er the humblest grave. 

7. If Spring have no blossoms, Autumn will have no fruit. 

8. John can write beautifully. 

9. Perhaps he will not come. 

10. Unsheathe not the sword, except it be for self-defence. 

11. Deep rivers flow in silent majesty. 

12. If thou hadst been here, my brother would not have died. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 131 

LESSON XXXV, 
Postulates, Rank. Form. 

302. A Postulate is a sentence in which the predicate 
is expressed as something dependent upon the mind of the 
speaker. 

303. Postulates include 

1. Imperative Sentences. 

2. Exclamative Sentences. 

3. Interrogative Sentences. 

304. An Imperative sentence is one in which the pre- 
dicate expresses something dependent upon the will of the 
speaker. Imperative sentences express 

a. Determination. 

a. Resolution; as, I will not go; he shall go. 
j3. Promise ; as, You shall be rewarded, 
y. Prophecy ; as, It shall come to pass. 

b. Injunction. 

a. Command; as, Charge! Thou sh alt not steal. 
/?. Exhortation ; as, Be diligent in business, 
y. Permission ; as, You may go ; Let me or him go. 
c Solicitation. 

a. Expostulation ; as, You should not do so. 
(3. Entreaty ; as, Do lend me the book. 
y. Prayer ;• as, Give us this day our daily bread. 
6. Wish; as, May you be safe! Let me die the death of the 
righteous! 

305. An Exclamative sentence is one in which the 
predicate expresses something dependent upon the emo- 
tional nature. Exclamative sentences are 

(a.) Full ; as, Mow beautiful she appeared I 
(b.) Elliptical ; as, How beautiful! How lovely ! 

306. An Interrogative sentence is one that expresses 
an inquiry ; as, Has James come ? Where do you live ? 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

307. There are three varieties of interrogative sentences, viz : 
Direct, Indirect and Conditional. 

308. A Direct Interrogative sentence is one that can 
be answered by yes or no. 

Note. — A Direct question takes one of three forms, viz : 

a Is John well? asks for information. 

/? John is not well, is he ? expects the answer no. 

y John is well, is he not ? expects the answer yes. 

309. An Indirect Interrogative sentence is one intro- 
duced by an interrogative pronoun, adjective or adverb; 
as, What did you say? what man is that? where do 
you live? 

310. A Conditional Interrogative sentence is one in 
which the predicate is conditioned; as, Will he go, if it 
rains ? 

311. Sentences, with regard to rank, are divided into 

1. Principal. 

2. Subordinate. 

3. Coordinate. 

312. A Principal sentence is one that does not depend 
on another proposition; as, James tills his fields well. 

313. A Subordinate sentence is a proposition or clause 
used as a modifier ; as, The man whom I loved, is dead. 

314. A Coordinate sentence is one of the similar sen- 
tences which are united by a coordinate conjunction, to 
form a compound sentence; as, John writes and Mary 
reads. 

Remark. — When rank is considered, each sentence is denominated 
a clause. 

315. Sentences, with regard to form, are divided into 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 133 

1. Simple. 

2. Complex. 

3. Compound. 

4. Abridged. 

316. A Simple sentence is one that contains but one 
proposition or postulate; as, The flowers are blooming ; 
study your lesson. 

317. A Complex sentence contains two or more propo- 
sitions, of which at least one is dependent ; as, When 
spring COMES, the flowers will bloom. 

318. A Compound sentence is one in which two or 
more similar sentences are united by a coordinate con- 
junction ; as, John writes and Mary reads 

319. An Abridged proposition is a subordinate sentence, 
some of the elements of which are changed or omitted; 
as, I ordered him to go; I heard of his coming. 

320. Exercise. 

Tell to what class each of the following sentences belongs. 

1. Too daring prince ! ah ! whither dost thou run ? 
Ah ! too forgetful of thy wife and son ! 

And think'st thou not how wretched we shall be, 
A widow I, a helpless orphan he ! 

2. Lo ! beauty withers in your void embrace ! 

3. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll ! 

4. Hark ! a glad voice the lonely desert cheers; 
Prepare the way ! A God, a God appears ! 

A God ! a God ! the vocal hills reply; 

The rocks proclaim th' approaching Deity. 

Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies ! 

Sink down, ye mountains; and ye valleys, rise ! 

With heads declined, ye Cedars, homage pay; 

Be smooth, ye rocks; ye rapid floods, give way. 

The Saviour comes ! by ancient bards foretold. 

Hear him, ye deaf; and all ye blind, behold ! 

14 



134 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



8B 
w 

H 



91 
61 

o 
s 

5 

c 




o 

M WD 
© 




ft 

u 

ft 



Note 1. 



* | ( 
43 
eg 





F* 


ft 



5 r 



Conditional. 



Disjunctive. 



t H C a. Possibility. 
M? j 6. Probability. 
^ ( c. Necessity. ' 



a. Determination. 



b. Injunction. 



c. Solicitation. 



C3 



r a. Information, ") 

I b. Assent. [ Signification. 



I c. Dissent. 

I a. Direct. 

6. Indirect. 
I c. Conditional 



53 f a. Full. 






• I 



Form. 



.3 f 



6. Elliptical. 



g As to Rank. 



0: 



Principal. 

Subordinate. 

Coordinate. 



5! As to Form, 



1. Simple. 

2. Complex. 

3. Compound. 

4. Abridged. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 135 

LESSON XXXVI. 
Classification of Elements. 

321. An Idea is the image the mind forms of something 
previously perceived or apprehended. 

322. A Thought is the result of the comparison of 
ideas conceived in relation to one another. 

Note. — As "Grammar teaches the natural connection between ideas and 
words ; " as our thoughts arise from attributing qualities, actions, &c, to 
the things of which we have a knowledge, and naturally take the form 
of propositions or sentences, in order to understand the nature of lan- 
guage thus expressed, it must be resolved into its constituent parts. 
Hence, one of the first grammatical processes is the resolution of 
sentences into the ideas of which they are composed. This process is 
termed Analysis, and the words used to represent distinct ideas are 
denominated Elements. Hence, 

323. An Element is a word or combination of words 

used to express a distinct idea ; as, Mary learns her lesson 

well. 

Remark. — Here each word expresses a distinct idea, and is termed 
an Element. 

324. There are three classes of Elements, viz : 

I. Principal. 
II. Subordinate. 
III. Independent. 

325. The Principal Elements are, 
(1.) The Subject, and 

(2.) The Predicate, including 
(a.) The Copula, and 
(b.) The Attribute. 

326. The Subordinate Elements are used as modifiers. They 
are, — 

(1.) The Adjective Element, 
(2.) The Objective Element, and 
(3.) The Adverbial Element. 



136 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



327. The Independent Elements express peculiarities of 
thought or sentiment, and include certain 

(1.) Exclamative Forms. 
(2.) Idiomatic Forms. 
(3.) Abridged Forms. 

328. The kinds and varieties of Elements will be defined as their 
syntax and uses are developed. Below is a comprehensive Outline. 



in 

H 

W 
SB 

Si 
H 

is 
e 



ft 

fa 
ft 



i f L 



1. Subject. 
Predicate. 



(a. 



Copula. 
Attribute. 



1 fci 



1. Simple. 
S J 2. Complex. 
© 1 3. Compound. 

*■ 4. Complex and Compound. 



-. - f 1. IstClass- 

£ § J 2. 2d Class- 
S ( 3. 3d Class- 



Word. 

-Phrase. 

Clause. 



08 
a 

u 

I 

s 



1. Adjective Element. 

3 <j 2. Objective Element. 

3 J 3. Adverbial Element. 



S 

•a 

s 

ft 



3 <( s 



1. Simple. 

3. Compound. / ° * 

4. Complex and Compound. 

« r 1. 1st Class— Word. 

J J 2. 2d Class— Phrase. 

w ( 3. 3d Class— Clause. 

© 

s r 1. A Noun or Pronoun used independently. 

« J 2. An Interjection. 

J t 3. An Exclamative Sentence. 

^ r 1. Expletives, Correlatives and Intensives. 

£ ■] 2. Pleonasm. 

2 ( 3. Quantitative Complement. 

J f 1, A Participle or Infinitive used independently. 
« J 2. An Adjective used absolutely. 
'5 3. The Absolute Construction. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 137 

LESSON XXXVII. 
Classification of Conjunctions. 

329. A Conjunction is a Word which connects words 
representing related thoughts, sentiments or volitions. 

330. There are two classes of Conjunctions : 

1. Coordinate. 

2. Subordinate. 

331. There are three kinds of Coordinate conjunctions, viz : 

a. Copulative, viz: And; both— and: as well as ; not 

only— but, but also, but likewise. 

b. Adversative, viz : Hut ; indeed — but 5 now — then; 

011 the one band — on the other hand. 

c. Alternative, viz : Or ; nor ; neither ; either — or 5 

neither — nor. 

332. There are five kinds of Subordinate Conjunctions, viz: 

a. Substantive, viz: That, that not, but, but that, 

whether. 

b. Conditional, viz: If, unless (if not), though, except, 

provided that. 

c. Final, viz: That, that not, lest, in order that, 

so that, so as, 
d» Concessive* 

a. Correlative, viz: Whatever, whoever, which- 
ever, nevertheless, still, while, yet. 
p. Relative, viz: Although, however, notwith- 
standing, though. 
e* Causal. 

a. Reason, viz: As, because, for, inasmuch as, 

forasmuch as, since, whereas. 
p. Inference, viz: Consequently, hence, then, 

therefore, wherefore, whence. 

L 14* 



138 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



833. Exercise. 

Analyze the following sentences, select the conjunctions, and tell 
to what class arid species they belong. 

1. People are happy, because they are good. 

2. Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 

3. If you wish to enjoy health, bathe often. 

4. I have brought a passage, that you may explain it. 

5. Although the place was unfavorable, nevertheless Csesar 
determined to attack the enemy. 

6. As the door turneth upon its hinges, eo doth the slothful 
man upon his bed. 

7. Do as your parents bid. 

8. The more sleek the prey, the greater the temptation ; and 
no wolf will leave a sheep to dine upon a porcupine. 

9. Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie upon the 
bottom. 

10. A jest is not an argument; nor is a loud laugh a demon- 
stration. 



3 





4 

c 



e 

w 



1. Coordinate, 



2« Subordinate. 



a. Copulative. 

b. Adversative. 

c. Alternative 

f a. Substantive. 

b. Conditional. 

c. Final. 



d. Concessive. I „ 

e. Causal. < „ 



a. Correlative. 
Relativo. 



a. Reason. 
Inference. 






ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 139 



LESSON XXXVIII. 
Conjunctive Pronouns. 

334. There are three kinds of Conjunctive Pronouns, viz. : 

(a.) Relative. 

(£>.) Compound Relative. 

(c.) Interrogative. 

Remark. — Conjunctive Pronouns are species of subordinate connec- 
tives. 

335. A Relative Pronoun represents the same object as 
some preceding word in the same sentence to which it con- 
nects, as a modifier, the clause of which it forms a part ; 
as, The man whom I loved, is dead. 

336. The Eelative Pronouns are who, which, that and as. 
Who represents persons. 

Which represents the inferior animals, objects with- 
out sex, and children. 

That is used to prevent a too frequent repetition of who 
and which, and should be used 

1. When the antecedent denotes both persons and things; 
as, The man and the horse that I saw, were killed. 

2. When the clause is restrictive ; as, In thoughts that 
breathe and words that burn. 

3. When its antecedent is modified by a superlative, by 
very or by same; as, He was the first that discovered 
it; the same man that you saw; the very thing that I 
wanted. 

4. When its antecedent is who, or is modified by no, not, 
all, any, each, every or some; as, It is not grief that 
bids me moan. 

5. When its antecedent is a Personal Pronoun, and no 
word intervenes ; as, Fall he that must; His praise is 
lost who waits till all commend. 

As is used as a relative after such, many, same, and (some- 
times) as much; as, He has &u OK friends AS every one 
should strive to have. 



Sing. & Plur. 


Sing. & Plur. 


Sing. & Plur 


Who 


which 


what. 


Whose 






Whom 


which 


what. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

337. A Compound Relative Pronoun represents an 
indefinite object; as, Whoever will come, may come; what / 
say, ye know not now. 

What is not a simple, but a Compound Relative Pronoun 

338. Who, which, and what are declined as follows :— 

Nominative. 

Possessive. 
Objective. 

Eemark 1. — Whose is sometimes used as the possessive of which. 
Thereof was formerly used as the possessive of it, and whereof as the 
possessive of which. 

339. The Compound Relative Pronouns are formed by suffix- 
ing ever or soever to the forms given in § 338. 

Remark. — Ever and soever are sometimes omitted, and at other times' 
separated from the relative by an intervening word; as, Who steals my 
purse, steals trash ; I am beset what way soever / go. 

340. Compound Relative Pronouns are used to introduce sub- 
stantive clauses; as, What is thoroughly understood, is easily 
described. 

Remark. — In the above sentence, what is the subject of is understood, 
and the clause, What is thoroughly understood, is the subject of is 
described. This method disposes of the Compound Relative naturally, 
and requires no equivalent in parsing. 

341. An Interrogative Prononn is a pronoun that re- 
presents the answer to the question which it asks; as, Who 
came with you? John. 

342. The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which and what, 

used to ask questions. 

Who inquires for the name, or, when that is given, for some 
description of person ; as, Who was Blcnnerhasset f 

Which inquires for a particular one of several persons or 
things ; as, Which is yours ? 

What inquires for the kind of thing, or for the character 
or occupation of a person j as, What have you f What art 
thou f What is he ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



141 



343. Exercise. 

Select the Conjunctive Pronouns from the following sentences, 
and tell to what species they belong. 

1. He that studies English literature without the lights of 
classical learning, loses half the charms of its sentiment and 
style. 

2. Who that reads the poetry of Gray, does not feel that it is 
the refinement of classical taste which gives such inexpressible 
vividness and transparency to its diction ? 

3. Who that reads Pope and Dryden, does not perceive in 
them the disciples of the old school, whose genius was inflamed 
by the heroic verse of antiquity ? 

4. Mark but my fall and that that ruined me, 

5. Whoever yields to temptation, debases himself with a 
debasement from which he can never arise. 

6. Whatsoever seeming retrogressions there may be, in the 
final comparison of the ages there is an undeniable advancement. 

7. The tree that thou sawest, which grew and was strong, 
whose height reached unto the heavens and the sight thereof 
to all the earth; whose leaves were fair and the fruit thereof much, 
and in it was meat for all; under which the beasts of the field 
dwelt, and upon whose branches the fowls of heaven had their 
habitation : it is thou, King, that art grown and become strong. 



* ^ * 
,g » s 

J '? ° 

$ S fa 



1. Relative Pronouns. - 



2. Compound Relatives. 



Who Declension. 

Which 

That Uses 1,2,3,4,5. 

As 

\ Which 
( What 
rWho Use. 
3. Interrogatives. -j Which " 
(What " 



} 



OP 

soever 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXXIX. 
Interrogative and Conjunctive Adverbs, 

344. Interrogative Adverbs inquire for some circum- 
stance of Place, Time, Cause or Manner, and introduce indi- 
rect interrogative sentences; as, Where do you live? In 
Clinton Street When did you come? This morning. Why 
did he leave? Because he was compelled to do so. How 
did he go? \ In the cars. 

345. A Conjunctive Adverb is an adverb which con- 
nects the clause of which it forms a part to the word 
which the clause modifies. 

346. There are three kinds of Conjunctive Adverbs, viz: 

1. Conjunctive Adverbs of Place. 

a. Position, viz: As far as 9 as long as, farther than, 

where, wherever. 

b. Direction, viz : Whither, whithersoever. 

c. Origin, viz: Whence. 

2. Conjunctive Adverbs of Time. 

a. Point. 

a. Simultaneous, viz : As, as soon as, when, when- 
ever. 

p. Antecedent, viz: Before, ere. 
y. Subsequent, viz: After. 

b. Period. 

a. Duration, viz: As long as, while, whilst, 

p. Commencement, viz: Since. 
y. Termination, viz: Till, until. 

c. Frequency, viz: As frequently as, as often as. 

3. Conjunctive Adverbs of Manner. 

a. Quality. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



143 



a. Correspondence, 

1/ With a verb or adjective, viz : As ; just as ; so — as. 
2/ With a noun or pronoun, viz; Save; such — as; 
same— as. 

p. Consequence. 

1/ With a verb or adjective, viz: So— 111 lit, 
2/ With a noun or pronoun, viz: Such — that. 

b. Comparison. 

a. Equality, viz: As— as ; not so— as. 
p. Greater Inequality, viz: Than; more — than. 
y. Lesser Inequality, viz: Than; less than. 
6\ Proportionate Equality, viz: The— the; the — so 
much the. 



f 1. Place. 



> 

5 a 

© h 

e 



S 2. Time. 



3. Manner. 



a. Position. 

b. Direction. 

fc c. Origin. 



r a. Point. 



b. Period. 



a. Simultaneous. 
p. Antecedent. 
y. Subsequent. 

«. Duration. 

p. Commencement. 

y. Termination. 



c. Frequency. 



'a. Quality 



{ 



b. Comparison. - 



a. Correspondence. 
p. Consequence. 

a. Equality. 

p. Greater Inequality. 

y. Lesser Inequality. 

5. Proportionate Equality. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

347. Exercise. 

Analyze the following sentences ; select the conjunctive adverbs, 
and tell what relation the?/ express. 

1. When you have nothing to say, say nothing. 

2. The age of miracles is past, while that of prejudice remains* 

3. Our lesson is the same as that we had yesterday. 

4. The robber struck him such a blow that he fell. 

5. Where the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered 
together. 

6. The science of mathematics performs more than it promises.. 

7. The more I use the book, the better I like it. 

8. I have more than I know what to do with. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 145 

LESSON XL. 
Classification of Connectives. 

348. Connectives are words used to join certain elements of dis- 
course. The elements thus connected are Phrases and Clauses, of 
which the connective forms a part. These Phrases and Clauses 
perform certain offices and take their distinctive names from the; 
nature and use of the connective emploved. 

349. There are three kinds of Connectives, viz: 

I. Substantive. 
II. Subordinate* 
III. Coordinate. 

350. The Substantive Connectives are 

1. Substantive Conjunctions. 

2. Compound Eelative Pronouns. 

3. Interrogatives, including 

a. Interrogative Pronouns. 
6. Interrogative Adjectives, 
c. Interrogative Adverbs, 

351. The Adjective Connectives are 

1. Eelative Pronouns^ 

2. Conditional Conjunctions, 

3. Concessive Conjunctions. 

352. The Adverbial Connectives are 

1. Final Conjunctions. 

2. Causal Conjunctions. 

3. Conjunctive Adverbs. 

Remark. — Subordinate Connectives include Adjective Con- 
nectives and Adverbial Connectives. 

15 



146 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



y 

M 

H 

w 

© 



6 

2 




a. Substantive Conjunctions. 

b. Compound Relative Pronouns. 



c. Interrogatives. 



a. Interrogative Pronouns. 
p. Interrogative Adjectives. 
7. Interrogative Adverbs. 



Relative Pronouns. 



$ ( a. 

'g <J b. Conditional Conjunctions. 

§ ^ c Concessive Conjunctions. 



r a. Final Conjunctions. 
6. Causal Conjunctions. 



<+» 
SS 

•PN 

s 

06 



- 

e 

w 






■ 



2 



a/ Place 



■'{ 



a. Position. 
j3. Direction. 
7. Origin. 



Time. 



a. 



a/ Simultaneous. 
Antecedent, 
ibsequent. 



(a/ S11 

. i /?.' An 
[7/ Su 

fa.' 



/?. Period 

7. Frequency 
" a/ Correspondence. 



a/ Duration. 

' Commencement. 
Termination. 



c3 

a 



Yerb or Adjective. 
Noun or Pronoun. 






( Verb or Adjective. 

. jB/ Consequence. *s 

L Noun or Pronoun. 



6. Comparison. 



a. Equality. 

/3. Greater Inequality. 

y. Lesser Inequality. 

8. Proportionate Equality. 



1. Copulative Conjunctions. 

2. Adversative Conjunctions. 

3. Alternative Conjunctions. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 147 



LESSON XLI. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
Elements of the Third Class. 
Substantive Clauses. 

353. An element of the third class is a sentence used as 
part of another sentence. There are three classes : 

I. Substantive. 
II. Adjective. 
III. Adverbial. 

354. A Clause is an integral part of a complex sentence, 

and consists of 

(1.) Connective. 
(2.) Subject. 
(3.) Predicate. 

355. Substantive Elements of the Third Class consist of 

(1.) Substantive Clauses. 
(2.) Propositions. 
(3.) Postulates. 

356. Substantive Clauses are introduced by 

(«.) Compound Relative Pronouns," 
(6.) Substantive Conjunctions, 

(c) Inter rogatives, consisting of 

a. Interrogative Pronouns, 
/?. Interrogative Adjectives, 
y. Interrogative Adverbs, 

357. Substantive Clauses, together with Propositions and 
Postulates, are used to express the following relations, viz : 

1. The relation of Subject; as, 

(a.) What is thoroughly understood, is easily described. 
(b.) That the earth is a sphere, is susceptible of proof. 
(c.) Why he resigned, is not known. 

2. The relation of Attribute ; as, 

{a.) The only wonder is, that one head can contain it all. 
(b.) Life is what we make it, 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The relation of" Complement ; as, 

(<z.) You now see why he did not come. 

(b.) Who3isoever the bishop appoints, the church will receive. 

(c.) I will not object to what is reasonable. 

4. The relation of Appositive ; as, 

(a.) The question, Can he succeed? is now discussed. 
(5.) One truth is clear: Whatever is, is right. 

358. Substantive connectives simply introduce the clauses of 
which they form a part. Hence we infer 

RULE XIV. 

A substantive CONNECTIVE introduces the clause of which 
it forms a part. 

FORMULAS XIV. 

(1.) If a Conjunction. Species? Use? Introduces what ? 
Rule XIV. 

(2.) If an Interrogative Adverb. Species? Use? Modifies 
what? Rule X. Introduces what? Rule XIV. 

(3.) If an Interrogative Adjective. Species? Reference? 
Construction? Rule V. Use? Introduces what? Rule 
XIV. 

(4.) If an Interrogative or Compound Relative Pronoun. Spe- 
cies? Person, number and gender? To agree with 
what ? Rule III. Construction ? Case ? Rule VII, X 
or XIII. Use? Introduces what? Rule XIV. 

359. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. Whether he can finish the wor7c, is doubtful. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which the substantive 
clause, whether he can finish the work, is the subject, of which 
whether is the connective, he, the subject, and finish the work, the 
predicate, being complex, of which finish is the basis, modified 
by the work, an objective element, &c; is doubtful is the predicate 
of the principal clause, of which is is the copula, and doubtful, 
the attribute. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 149 

Parsing. 

Whether is a substantive conjunction, is used as a substantive con- 
nective, and introduces the clause of which it forms a part, 
according to Rule XIV. A substantive connective introduces the 
clause of which it forms a part 

Ex. 2. Whoever plants trees, must love otluers besides himself. 

Analysis* 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which the substantive 
clause, whoever plants trees s is the subject, of which whoever is the 
connective and subject, plants trees, the predicate, being complex, 
etc.; must love $c. is the predicate of the principal clause, etc. 

Parsing. 

Whoever is a Compound Relative Pronoun, of the third person, sin- 
gular number and masculine gender, to agree with the name of 
an object present to the mind, according to Rule III, (Repeat 
the Rule); it is construed as the subject of plants, and must 
therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule I, (Repeat 
the Rule)-, it introduces the clause, according to Rule XIV. (Re- 
peat the Rule.) 

Ex 3. Politicians advocate ichatever seems popular. 
Analysis. 

This is a complex Categorical proposition, of which politicians is the 
subject, and advocate whatever seems popular, the predicate, bein* 
complex, of which advocate is the basis, modified by the substantive 
clause whatever seems popular, an objective element of the third 
class, of which ivhatever is the Connective and subject, and seems 
popular, the predicate, of which seems is the copula, and popular 
the attribute; 

Parsing* 

Whatever is parsed like whoever. 

Ex. 4. No one knows ichen JEneas landed in Italy. 

Analysis. 

Knows ivhen JEneas landed in Italy is the predicate, being complex, 
of which knows is the basis, modified by the substantive clauso 



15 



* 



150 ENGLISH GRAMxMAR. 

token JEneas landed in Italy, an objective element of the third 
class, of which when is the connective, JEneas, the subject, and 
landed in Italy, the predicate, being complex, etc. 

Parsing. 

When is an interrogative adverb, used as a substantive connective, 
and modifies landed, with which it is construed, according to Rule 
X, {Repeat the Rule) ; it introduces the substantive clause, accord- 
ing to Rule XIV. [Repeat the Rule.) 

Ex. 5. lie said to him, " Where have you been?" 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, &c. ; said to him, Where 
have you been? is the predicate, being complex, of which said is 
the basis, modified first by the indirect complement to him, and 
secondly by the interrogative sentence, Where have you been? an 
objective element of the third class, &c. 

Parsing. 

Parse where like when in Example 4. 

Ex. 6. He inquired by what means I succeeded. 
Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which he is the subject 
and inquired by what means I succeeded is the predicate, being com- 
plex, of which inquired is the basis, modified by the substantive 
clause, by what means I succeeded, of which / is the subject, and 
succeeded by what means, the predicate, being complex, of which 
succeeded is the basis, modified by by what means, an adverbial 
element of the second class, of which by is the connective and 
what means the objective part, being complex, of which means is 
the basis, modified by what, an adjective element of the first 
class. 

Parsing* 

What is an interrogative adjective, and refers to means, with which 
it is construed, according to Rule V, [Repeat the Rule) ; it intro- 
duces the clause of which it forms a part, according to Rule XIV. 
{Repeat the Rule.) 



ENGLISH GRAjVOIAR, 



151 



II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Will you tell me where you have been ? 

2. The farmer declared that his watch had gained half-an-hour. 

3. I will not deny what I said. 

4. Know that in the soul are many lesser faculties. 

5. Whosoever will come, may come. 

6. I will not object to what is reasonable. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Tell me where you went to. 

2. He asked me if I would go. 

3. John wanted to know where I come from. 

4. James told her where John went to. 

5. There is no doubt but he will come. 

6. I am surprised how you could say so. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing substantive clauses. 



| " I. Classes. I, II, III. 



3 

c 



CO 



s 



c 

CS 
OB 

s 



II. Parts. 1, 2, 3. 

III. Kinds. 1, 2, 3. 

IV. Connectives, a, b, c, (a, /?, y.) 



V. Uses 



■( 



1. Subject, a, b, c. 

Attribute, a, b. 

Complement, a, b, c. 
4. Appositive. a, b. 



VI. Rnle and Formula XIV. 1, 2, 3, 4. 

L VII. Models. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. 



152 ENGLISH ORAMMARv 

LESSON XLII. \ 

Adjective Elements of tlie Third Class. 

360. Adjective Elements of the Third Class consist of 

(1.) Relative Clauses. 
(2.) Conditional Clauses. 
(3.) Concessive Clauses. 

361. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pronouns 
(§336), and are used 

(a.) To limit the Subject; as, He Whom I loved, is dead, 
(b.) To limit the Attribute; as, lie is ike man who did it. 
(c.) To limit the Complement; as, Tennyson wrote the poem WHICH 
You admire ; Be dwelt in the house that Jack built. 

RemabK 1 .—As is a relative when it comes before a verb, or follows 
suck, many or same. 

Remark 2. — In such sentences as, / asked him who came, who is not a 
relative, but an interrogative pronoun. The clause who came denotes the 
direct object, and the interrogative who simply introduces it. 

386. Adjective and adverbial connectives (Page 146), which may 
be termed subordinate connectives, join the clause of which they 
form a part to the word which the clause modifies. Hence, we 
infer 

RULE XT. 

A SUBORDINATE connective joins the clause of which it forms 
u part to the word which the clause MODIFIES. 

FORMULiE XV. 

If a Conjunction. 
Species? Use? Connects what? Rule XV. 

If a Conjunctive Adverb. 
Species? Use? Modifies what ? Rule X. Connects 
What? RuleXVt 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 153 

If a Relative Pronoun. 

Species? Person, number and gender? To agree 
witn wnat? Rule III. Construction? Case? Rule? 
Use? Connects wnat? Rule XV. 

363. models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1 The man who escapes censure, is fortunate. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which the man who 
escapes censure is the subject, being complex, of which man is the 
basis, distributed by the, an adjective element of the first class, 
and modified by the relative clause icho escapes censure, an adjec- 
tive element of the third class, of which who is the connective 
and subject, and escapes censure, the predicate, being complex, of 
which escapes is the basis, modified by censure, an objective element 
of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Who is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, to agree with the name of an object present 
to the mind, according to Rule III. (Repeat Ike Rule.) It is con- 
strued as the subject of censure, and must therefore be in the 
nominative case, according to Rule I. (Repeat the Rule.) It joins 
the clause who escapes danger, of which it forms a part, to the word 
man which the clause modifies, according to Rule XV: A subor- 
dinate connective join* the clause of which it forms a part to the word 
which the clause modifies, 

Ex. 2. Appoint to office such men as deserve public confidence. 
Analysis. 

This is a complex imperative sentence,' of which the subject is the 
name of the persons addressed, and appoint, 3fc, is the predi- 
cate, being complex, of which appoint is the basis, modified ( x ) by 
to office, an adverbial element of the second class, of which to is 
the connective and office the objective part, and ( 2 ) by such men as 
deserve public confidence, an objective element of the first class, 
being complex, of which men is the basis, modified ( ! ) by such, an 
adjective element of the first class, and ( 2 ) by the relative clause, 
as deserve public confidence, an adjective element of the third class, 
M 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of which as is the connective and subject, and deserve public confi- 
dence, the predicate, being complex, of which deserve is the basis, 
modified by public confidence, an objective* element of the first class, 
being complex, of which confidence is the basis, modified hj public, 
an adjective element of the third class. 

Parsing. 

As is a relative pronoun, of the third person, plural number, mas- 
culine gender, to agree with men, which it represents, according 
to Rule III. (Repeat- the Rule.) It is construed as the subject, 
and "must therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule I. 
(Repeat the Rule.) It joins the clause of which it forms a part 
to the word men which the clause modifies, according to Rule XV. 
A subordinate connective joins the clause of which it forms a part, #c. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. The reward which was promised, shall be given. 

2. The globe on which we live, is in constant motion. 

:>. Qnoper's Epitaph on Samuel Johnson. 
Here Johnson lies— a sage by all allowed 
Whom to have bred, may well make England proud; 
Whose prose was eloquence, by wisdom taught, 
The graceful vehicle of virtuous thought j 
Whose verse may claim— grave, masculine and strong, 
Superior praise to the mere poet's song; 
Who many a noble gift from heaven possessed, 
And faitli at last, alone worth all the rest. 
man, immortal by a double prize, 
By fame on earth— by glory in the skies. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. He was the ablest minister which James ever possessed. 

2. They are the same persons who assisted us yesterday, 
a I am happy in the friend which I have long proved. 

4. No man who knows him would trust him. 

5. The ship and passengers who were lost at sea. 

6. It is not grief which bids me moan. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



155 



7. The men and things which he has studied, have not improved 
his morals. 

8. He is like a beast of prey, who destroys without pity. 

9. Humility is one of the most amiable virtues which we can 
possess. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing relative clauses. 



2 k f I. Kinds. 

S a 

pi © m 

W fl w 



r 1. Relative Clauses. 

2 Conditional Clauses. 
L 3. Concessive Clauses. 
£ <g 9 J II. Uses, a, 6, c. Remark. 

III. Rule and Formula XV. 

IV. Models. 1, 2. 






156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLIIL 
Hypothetical Propositions. 

364. A Hypothetical Proposition is one that consists 
of two clauses, one of which depends on the other and 
expresses an assumption, condition or supposition ; as, If 
thou HADST BEEN here, my brother ivould not have died. 

365. The parts of a Hypothetical Proposition are the Protasis 
and the Apodosis. 

1. The Protasis is either 

(a.) A Conditional Clause, introduced by a Conditional 
Conjunction, (332, b) or 

(b.) A Concessive Clause, introduced by a Concessive Con- 
junction, (332, d.). 

2. The Apodosis is the conditioned or conceded clause, the latter 

being generally introduced by a Correlative Concessive 
Conjunction, (332 d.). 

Remark. — In Hypothetical propositions, when the protasis or apodosis 
represents an actuality, the verb is in the indicative mode, but when it 
represents something merely imaginary, (a supposition or a conception 
of the mind,) the subjunctive mode is used. 

366. In hypothetical propositions, the Modes, Tenses, and 
Forms are used as follows: — 

1. When the condition expressed by the conditioning clause 
is a real one, relating to present or past time, there being no 
contingency of fact, the Indicative Mode is used in the protasis, 
and the Indicative or Imperative in the apodosis. Examples : — 

If this is treason, make the most of it. 

If he was ill, he did not prepare his lessons. 

If I understand him, he means this. 

If there has been much rain, the roads are impassable. 

If it rains, my friend is in danger. 

If we follow nature, we shall never go astray. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 157 

2. When the condition expressed by the Conditioning 

Clause is not a fact, but something supposed or doubtful, which 

may or may not be realized, the Present-Subjunctive, Conditional 

form, is used in the protasis, and the Indicative-Future in the 

apodosis. Examples : — 

If he be studious, he will improve. 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

Unless I be by Sylvia in the night, there is no music in the nightingale. 

Though hand join hand, the wicked shall not go unpunished. 

3. When the Conditioning Clause expresses a mere sup- 
position in present time, which is not realized, but denied, the 
Past-Subjunctive, Conditional form, is used in the protasis, 
and the Past-Subjunctive, Potential form, in the apodosis. Ex- 
amples: — 

If he were careful, he would succeed. 

If my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight. 

If I had the book, I would lend it to you. 

Were it so, I would be content. 

If all knew their duty and did it, there would be less misery in the world. 

4. When the Conditioning Clause expresses a mere sup- 
position as in past time, the realization of which it denies, the 
Past-Perfect Subjunctive, Conditional form, is used in the pro- 
tasis, and the Past-Perfect Subjunctive, Potential form, is used 
in the apodosis. Examples : — 

Had he known it sooner, he would have prevented it. 
If he had been pressed, he would have come. 

5. If the Conditioning Clause expresses a mere future 
contingency, the Future-Conditional is used in the protasis, and 
the Future-Indicative in the apodosis. Examples : — 

If he shall proceed, he will attain his object. 

If it should rain to-morrow, I shall not be able to come. 

6. When a Clause expresses a mere wish or conclusion, or a 
supposition without fact, the Past-Subjunctive, Conditional form, 
is used. Examples : — 

Oh ! that I were prepared to die ! 

Oh ! that I were as when my mother pressed me to her bosom ! 
It were useless to attempt such a thing ! 

16 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

367. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. Though he slay me, yet will I serve him. 

Analysis. 

This is a hypothetical proposition, of which though, he slay me is the 
protasis, of which though is the connective, he, the subject, and 
slay me, the predicate, being complex, of which slay is the basis, 
modified by me, an objective element of the first class; yet will 1 
serve him is the apodosis, of which yet is a correlative referring to 
though, I is the subject, and will serve him is the predicate, being 
complex, of which will serve is the basis, modified by him, an 
objective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Though is a concessive conjunction, is used to introduce the protasis, 
which it connects to the subject of the apodosis, according to 
Rule XV : A subordinate connective joins the clause of which it forms 
a part to the word which the clause modifies. 

Yet is a correlative, it is used to express antithesis, but has no 
grammatical relation to the other words in the sentence, according 
to Rule XXV : Particles and independent elements have no grammatical 
relation to the other words. 

Ex. 2. Unless I be by Sylvia in the night, there is no music 
in the nightingale. 

Analysis. 

This is a hypothetical proposition, of which unless I be by Sylvia in 
the night is the protasis, of which unless is the connective, /, the 
subject, and be by Sylvia in the night is the predicate, of which be 
is the basis, modified first by by Sylvia, an adverbial phrase of 
place, of which by is the connective and Sylvia, the objective part, 
and secondly by in the night, an adverbial phrase of time, of which 
in is the connective and the night, the objective part, being com- 
plex, of which night is the basis, distributed by the, an adjective 
element of the first class. There is no music in the nightingale is 
the apodosis, &c. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 159 

Parsing. 

Unless is a conditional conjunction, used as a subordinate connective, 
and joins the clause of which it forms a part to /which the clause 
modifies, according to Rule XV : A subordinate connective joins 
the clause of which it forms a part to the word which the clause modi- 
fies. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Unless he learn faster, he will never become a scholar. 

2. If thou censurest uncharitably, thou wilt deserve no favor. 

3. Though he fall, he shall not be utterly cast down. 

4. Unless you make a timely retreat, the danger will be unavoid- 
able. 

5. Though I were perfect, I would not presume. 

6. Had you come early, I would have accompanied you. 

7. Unless he improves himself, he will never be successful. 

8. Though he is high, he has respect to the lowly. 

9. What though, in solemn silence, all 
Move round the dark terrestrial ball? 
What though no real voice or sound 
Amid their radiant orbs be found? 
In Reason's ear they all rejoice, 
And utter forth a glorious voice, 
Forever singing as they shine, 
" The Hand that made us is divine." 

10. If I was deceived, I did not know it. 

11. had I the wings of a dove! 

12. If it were done, when it is done 'twere well 
If it were done quickly. 

13. Were half the wealth bestowed on camps and courts 

Given to redeem the human mind from error, 
There were no need of arsenals and forts. 

14. Whoever comes this way, behold and tremble. 

15. The child may have fallen into the well. 

16. He might have done it. 



160 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind. 

2. I shall walk in the fields to-day, unless it rain. 

3. If Charlotte desire to gain esteem and love, she does not em- 
ploy the proper means. 

4. Unless thou can fairly support the cause, give it up honor- 
ably. 

5. Though thou might have foreseen the danger, thou couldst 
not have avoided it. 

6. If thou do sincerely believe the truths of religion, act accord- 
ingly. 

7. Though self-government produce some uneasiness, it is light 
when compared with the pain of vicious indulgence. 

IY, Write ten sentences consisting of hypothetical propositions. 



g r I. Parts. 





ft 

© 

u 



o 
ft 

a 



1. Protasis, a, b. 

2. Apodosis. 



II. Modes. 



III. Varieties. 



IV. Models. 1,2. 



r 1. Real Cqndition. 

2. Possible Condition. 

3. Impossible Condition (present time). 

4. Impossible Condition (past tense), 

5. Future Contingency. 

6. Mere wish or Conclusion. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 161 



LESSON XLIV. 
Adverbial Elements of the Third Class. 

Final and Causal Clauses. 

368. Adverbial Elements of the third Class consist of 

(o.) Final Clauses. 
(5.) Causal Clauses. 
(c.) Local Clauses. 
(' 7 .) Temporal Clauses. 
(e.) Modal Clauses. 

369. Final Clauses are introduced by Final Conjunctions 
(§ 332, c), and express the aim, end, motive or purpose, with 
which an act is performed. 

Remark. — After verbs of advising, asking, commanding and striving, 
the infinitive is used to express purpose ; as, He told him not to do it. 

370. Causal Clauses are introduced by Causal Conjunc- 
tions and express 

a. An inference drawn from several propositions. 
j3. The reason for something that preceded it. 

Note 1. — Since final clauses express something doubtful, the verb 
must be in the subjunctive mode. 

Note 2. — After words expressing denial, doubt or fear, the conjunc- 
tion that is preferable to but, but what, but that, and (sometimes) 
last, how and as that. 

Note 3. — In Complex sentences, containing adverbial clauses, 
the verbs in each clause must express the same time, that is, past, 
present or future time, either absolute or relative; as, He said that he 
went or that he had gone. 

16* 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

371. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. Ye will not come unto me, that ye may have life. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which ye is the subject, 
will not come, §c, is the predicate, being complex, of which will 
come is the basis, modified ( l ) by not, ( 2 ) by unto me, and ( 3 ) by 
the Final Clause, that ye may have life, an adverbial element of the 
third class, of which that is the connective, ye, the subject, &c. 

Parsing. 

That is a Final Conjunction, is used as a subordinate connective, 
and joins the clause of which it forms a part to the word come 
which the clause modifies, according to Rule XV : A subordinate 
connective, $c, $c. 

Ex. 2. We hate some persons, because we do not know thet. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which we is the subject, 
and hate, §c, the predicate, being complex, of which hate is the 
basis, modified ( J ) by some persons, $c, ( 2 ) by the Causal clause, 
because we do not know them, an adverbial element of the third class, 
of which because is the connective, we, the subject, &c, &c. 

Parsing. 

Because is a Causal Conjunction, used as a subordinate connective, 
and joins the clause of which it forms a part to the word hate, 
according to Rule XV. {Repeat the Rule.) 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. He visited the springs, that he might improve his health. 

2. I will send you a history of Rome, that you may examine it. 

3. I have brought you this passage, that you may explain it. 

4. You were happy to-day, because you were good. 

5. Ye receive me not, because ye know him not. 

6. Since the soil has been enriched, the corn will grow. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 163 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Despise not any condition, lest it happens to be your own. 

2. Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life. 

3. Let him that is sanguine, take heed lest he miscarries. 

4. Take care that thou breakest not any of the established rules. 

5. I think I have a slight recollection that he might have said so. 

6. There is no doubt but what he is mistaken. 

7. I have no doubt but that you can help him. 

8. I am surprised how you can do such a thing. 

9. I was afraid lest you would not return soon enough. 

10. I don't know as I shall go. 

11. He is not so tired but what he can whistle. 

12. He could not deny but what he borrowed the money. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing final or causal clauses. 



Outline 



' I. Final Clauses. Remark. 

II. Causal Clauses, a, 6. Notes 1, 2, 3, 

III. Models. 1, 2. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLV. 

Local Clauses. 

372. liocal Clauses express the three relations of place, 
viz: Position (where?), Direction (whither?), and Origin 
(whence?), and are introduced by Conjunctive Adverbs of 
Place. 

Remark. — Some conjunctive adverbs of place admit of comparison ; 
as, lie went farther than he was allowed. 

&Mf Further relates to number or quantity ; farther, to distance. 

373. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. 1 will go, whither you direct. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which / is the subject 
and will go, fyc, is the predicate, being complex, of which will go 
is the basis, modified by the Local Clause, whither you direct, an 
adverbial element of the third class, of which whither is the con- 
nective, you, the subject, and direct, the predicate. 

Parsing. 

Whither is a conjunctive adverb of place, is used as a subordinate 
connective, and joins the clause of which it forms a part to the 
word go, which the clause modifies, according to Rule XV : {Re- 
peat the Rule.) It also modifies direct, with which it is construed, 
according to Rule X. (Repeat the Rule.) 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing* 

1. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also, 

2, Whither I go, ye cannot come. 

3. See! where the mountains rise; 
Where thundering torrents foam ; 
Where, vailed in towering skies, 
The eagle makes his home ; 
Where savage nature dwells, 
My God is present. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 165 

4. Down, down, where the storm is hushed to sleep, 

Where the sea its dirge shall swell ; 
Where the amber drops for thee shall weep, 
And the rose-lipped shell its music keep ; 

There thou shalt slumber well. 

5. Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled, 
And still where many a garden flower grows wild : 
There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, 
The village preacher's modest mansion rose. 

6. wherefore, with a rash, impetuous aim, 
Seek ye those flowery joys with which the hand 
Of lavish fancy paints each flattering scene 
Where beauty seems to dwell, nor once inquire 
Where is the sanction of eternal truth, 

Or where the seal of un deceitful good, 
To save your search from folly ! 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. He told me where he went to. 

2. I did not hear where he come from. 

3. Where I go, ye cannot come. 

4. I will go whither I please. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing Local Clauses, 

I. Local Clauses. Remark. 
Outline 

II. Model. 1 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLVL 
Temporal Clauses. 

374. Temporal Clauses express the three relations of time, 
viz: Point (when?), Period (how long?), and Frequency (how 
often ?), and are introduced by conjunctive adverbs of time. 

375. The Idiomatic uses of tlae Tenses, 

I. Of the Present. 

1. The Abstract Present, 

This tense expresses 

• a. What is habitual; as, He chews tobacco; She reads 
novels, 

b. What is always true ; as, Virtue is its own reward, 

c, A general fact ; as, The wish is father to the thought- 

Man is immortal till his work is done, 

% The Historical Present; as, C&sar leaves Gaul, crosses the 
Rubicon and enters Italy. 

3. The Literary Present; as, Moses tells us so and so, Virgil 

imitates Homer, for has told, has imitated. 

4. The Future Present; as, When he comes, he will tell you. 
Remark. — This tense is used in simultaneous temporal clauses. 

II. Of the Present-Perfect, 

1. The Incomplete Perfect ; as, He has been absent six years 

(and still is absent). 

2. The Historical Perfect ; as, Of old hast thou laid the foun- 

dations of the earth. 

Note. — These foundations are finished, but still existing. This 
tense cannot be applied to anything finished but destroyed in the past. 

3. The Ter ninal Perfect ; as, The cock shall not crow, till thou 

hast denied me thrice. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 167 

4. The Negative Perfect; as, /have been young (but now am 
old). 

III. Of the Past. 

1. The Limited Past ; as, /saw your friend this morning. 

2. The Customary Past ; as, She attended church all her life. 

Note. — The Past-Perfect tense sustains the same relation to the Past 
tense as the Present-Perfect does to the Present. 

376. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. Cromwell followed little events before he ventured to 
govern great ones. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which Cromwell is the 
subject, followed, $c., is the predicate, being complex, of which 
followed is the basis, modified ( l ) by little events, an objective element 
of the first class, &c, and ( 2 ) by the Temporal Clause, before he ven- 
tured to govern great ones, an adverbial element of the third class, 
of which before is the connective, he, the subject, and ventured to 
govern great ones, the predicate, being complex, of which ventured 
to govern is the basis, modified by great ones, an objective ele- 
ment, &c. 

Parsing. 

Before is a Conjunctive Adverb of Time, used as a subordinate con- 
nective, and joins the clause of which it forms a part to the word 
which the clause modifies, according to Rule XV. [Repeat the 
Rule ) It also modifies ventured, with which it is construed, 
according to Rule X. [Repeat the Rule.) 

Ones is an indefinite Pronoun, of the third person, plural number 
and neuter gender, to agree with events which it represents, 
according to Rule III. [Repeat the Rule.) It is construed as the 
complement of govern, and must therefore be in the objective case, 
according to Rule VIII. [Repeat the Ride.) 

Remark. — Ventured agrees with he and to govern depends upon he. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. I will remain until vou return. 



168 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. There are moments, I think, when the spirit receives 
Whole volumes of thought on its unwritten leaves, 
When the folds of the heart in a moment unclose, 
Like the innermost leaves from the heart of a rose. 
And thus, when the rainbow had passed from the sky, 
The thoughts it awoke were too deep to pass by. 

3. While offering peace sincere and just 
In heaven we place a manly trust, 
That truth and justice will prevail 
- And every scheme of bondage fail. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Our teacher told us that the air had weight. 

2. Plato maintained that God was the soul of the universe. 

3. He hardly seemed to know that four and four made eight. 

4. What did he say his name was? 

5. When the nation would have rushed into war, his voice has 
sheathed the sword in lasting peace. 

6. No one suspected that he was a preacher. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing temporal clauses. 



ft 

k 

as 



c 



m 



i 

m 
* ) 





•ml 



r I. Temporal Clauses. 

1. Abstract Present. <z, 6, c. 

2. Historical Present. 

3. Literary Present. 

4. Future Present. Remark. 

1. Incomplete Perfect. 

2. Historical Perfect. Note. 

3. Terminal Perfect. 



m 



[ 4. Negative Perfect. 

1. Limited Past. 

2. Customary Past. 
^ III. Model. 1. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 169 

LESSON XLVIL 
Modal Clauses* 

377. Modal Clauses are introduced by Conjunctive Adverbs 
(§ 346^ 3), and express 

1. Correspondence* 

2. Consequence. 

3. Comparison, 

378. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. As the door turneth upon its hinges-^ so doth the slothful 
man upon his bed. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which w so doth the sloth- 
Jut man upon his bed" is the principal clause, of which so is a cor- 
relative, and theslothful munis the subject, being complex, of which 
man is the basis, distributed by the, and modified by slothful, ad- 
jective elements of the first class ; doth upon his bed, is the predicate, 
being complex, of which, doth is the basis, modified hj upon his bed, 
an adverbial element of the second class, of which upon is the con- 
nective, and his bed, the objective part, being complex, of which bed 
is the basis, modified by his, an adjective element of the first class ; 
turneth is further modified by the modal clause of correspondence, 
"as the door turneth upon its hinges, 1 '' an adverbial clement of the 
third class, of which as is the connective, the door, the subject, 
being complex, of which door is the basis, distributed by the, an ad- 
jective clement of the first class, and turneth upon its hinges, is the 
predicate, being complex, of which turneth is the basis, modified 
by upon its hinges, an adverbial element of the second class, of 
which upon is the connective and its hinges the objective part, 
being complex, of which hinges is the basis, modified by its, an 
adjective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

JSo is a correlative, relates to as, but has no grammatical relation to 
the other words in the sentence, according to Rule XXV. Par- 
ticles have no grammatical relation to other words* 
N 17 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

As is a conjunctive adverb, and modifies turneth, with which it i? 
construed, according to Rule X. {Repeat the Rule.) It is used 
to join the clause of which it forms a part to the word doth, which 
the clause modifies, according to Rule XV. {Repeat the Rule.) 

Doth represents the word turneth in the preceding clause; principal 
parts, do, did, done, of the strong conjugation, indicative mode, 
present tense, solemn form, and of the third person, singular 
number, to agree with man, according to Rule II. {Repeat the 
Rule.) 

Ex. 2. Willie^ read so that ice can hear you. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex imperative sentence, of which Willie is an inde- 
pendent element, being the name of the object addressed; ready 
$c, is the predicate, being complex, of which read is the basis, 
modified by the modal clause of consequence, so that we can hear 
you, an adverbial element of the third class, of which so that is 
the connective, we, the subject, and can hear you, the predicate, 
being complex, of which can hear is the basis, modified by you, an 
objective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

So that is a conjunctive adverb of consequence, and modifies hear, 
with which it is construed, according to Rule X, {Repeat the 
Rule). It is used to join the clause of which it forms a part to 
the word read which the clause modifies, according to Rule XV- 
{Repeat the Rule.) 

Ex. 3. The science of mathematics performs more than it 
promises. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which the science of 
mathematics is the subject, &c. j performs more than it promises is 
the predicate, being complex, of which performs is the basis, 
modified by the modal clause of greater inequality, more than it 
promises, an adverbial element of the third class, of which more 
than is the connective, it, the subject, and promises, the predicate. 



The predicate may be analized differently Performs is the 
basis, modified by more than it promises, an independent adverbial 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 171 

element of the first class, being complex, of which more is the 
basis, modified by than it promises, an adverbial element of the 
second class, of which than is the connective, and the substantive 
clause it promises, the complementary part, of which it is the sub- 
ject, and promises, the predicate. 

Parsing. 

More than is a conjunctive adverb of manner, expressing greater 
inequality, and modifies promises with which it is construed, 
according to Rule X. [Repeat the Rule.) It joins the clause of 
which it forms a part to the word performs which the clause modi- 
fies, according to Rule XV. [Repeat the Rule.) 

Jd®* More than may be parsed as follows, viz : 

More is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the quantitative complement, 
and must therefore be in the objective case, according to Rule 
XI. [Repeat the Rule.) 

Than is a preposition, and shows the relation of the substantive 
clause it promises to performs, which words it connects, according 
to Rule XII. [Repeat the Rule.) 

Ex. 4. I have more than I know what to do with, 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which /is the subject, 
and have more, Sfc, is the predicate, being complex, of which have 
is the basis, modified by more than, Src, an independent adverbial 
element of the first class, being complex, of which more is the 
basis, modified by than I know what to do with, an adverbial element 
of the second class, of which than is the connective, and the sub- 
stantive clause I know what to do with, the complementary part, of 
which /is the subject and know what to do with, the predicate, 
being complex, of which know is the basis, modified by what to do 
with, an abridged objective element of the third class, of which 
the connective and subject are omitted, and the verb changed to 
the infinitive form, modified by what y a complementary element 
of the first class. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Parsing. 

II 11 12 1 2 13 25 22 

I have more than I know what to do with. 
More is quantitative complement. 
To do with depends upon /. 
What is the complement of to do with. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing* 

1. Moses built the tabernacle as he was commanded. 

2. As are blossoms in Spring, so are hopes in youth. 

3. There was such a noise that I could not hear. 

4. He has more than he knows what to do with. 

5. The more I use the book, the better I like it. 

6. Do as you are directed. 

7. Is gravity always as wise as it appears? 

8. Just as the twig was bent, the tree inclined. 

9. The more an avaricious man has, the more he wants. 

10. Henry is taller than his brother. 

11. As a bird that wandereth from her nest, so is a man that 
wandereth from his home. 

12. It cost much less than you suppose. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. He went further than he was permitted. 

2. That room is better furnished than any in the house. 

3. Homer had the greatest invention of any writer. 

4. Lake Superior is larger than any lake in the world. 

5. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe. 

6. This was the thing which of all others I wished most to see. 

Remark. — An object should not be compared with itself. The 
insertion of other or a similar word, or a change of form, will make 
the sense clear. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing modal clauses. 



Outline. . 



1. Correspondence. 
I. Modal Clauses. \ 2. Consequence. 

Comparison. 



fl. C( 

J J 2. C( 
(3. C< 



JBL Models. 1, 2; 3, 4. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 173 

LESSON XLVIIL 
Coordination. Compound Sentences. 

379. Coordination is effected by means of coordinate con- 
junctions (§ 331), and in order to understand the process 
thoroughly, let us examine the functions these connectives 
perform. 

The sentence, Mary and John study grammar = Mary (stu- 
dies grammar) ) John studies grammar. 

The sentence Mary sings and plays = Mary sings ; (Mary) 
plays. 

The sentence, Wise, eloquent and learned men are honored = 
Wise (men are honored); eloquent (men are honored); learned 
men are honored. 

In the equivalents of these sentences, the parts in parenthesis 
are the words for which and stands. 

From these facts two inferences may be drawn, viz : 

I. Coordinate Conjunctions are used to contract 

discourse. 

II. Coordinate Conjunctions are used to connect 

words in the same predicament, viz : 

1. When the same act is attributed to several persons ; 
as, John and Mary write. 

2. When different acts are attributed to the same per- 
son ; as, Mary plays and sings. 

3. When different qualities are attributed to the same 
object; as, Wise and good men die. 

4. When different circumstances limit the same action ; 
as, James speaks eloquently and correctly. 

5. When different objects are in the same relation; 
as, George went to Boston and New York; John 
taught James and George music and painting. 

17* 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

380. If there be similarity or contrast in the thought presented 
and the form of expression has no common elements, no elimination 
of parts can take place. 

381. Any of the elements heretofore mentioned may be com- 
pounded. If the elements thus united are propositions or postu- 
lates and are not dependent, the sentences thus formed are termed 
Compound. 

382. Coordinate conjunctions are used as follows, viz : 

a. If there is similarity of thought, a Copulative conjunc- 

tion ($ 331, a) is used j as, The heavens declare the glory 
of God and the firmament showeth his handiwork. 

b. If there is contrast of thought, an Adversative con- 

junction (| 331, b) is used; as, Talent is complimented 
but tact is rewarded. 

c. If the sentence expresses identity or difference, an Alter- 

native conjunction (§ 331, c) is used; as, He is either 
very crafty or he lacks good judgment 

Remark. — When the connection of thoughts is close, or one or all 
are to be emphatic, a connective is used in each clause or member, the 
one in the first part being called the correlative. 

383. Since coordinate conjunctions connect similar clauses (§ 314), 
and, also, words in the same predicament (§ 379, II), that is, nouns 
or pronouns in the same relation, adjectives referring to the same 
object or different objects of the same name, verbs referring to the 
same subject in the same way, adverbs limiting the same word, &c, 
and since elegance of diction requires that elements thus connected 
should be of the same class, we infer 

RULE XVI. 

Coordinate conjunctions join similar clauses, and 
elements of the same NATURE, CLASS and CONSTRUCTION; as, 
Life is short AND art is long ; John AND Mary broke up AND 
destroyed James and William 1 s new AND beautiful playthings, 
cutting AND mutilating them with a knife OR hatchet. 

FORMULA XVI. 
Species? Use? Connects what? Rule XVI • 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 175 

384. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. Not ONLY can the student gain no lofty improvement 
without labor, but without it no one can gain a tolerable hap- 
piness. 

Analysis* 

This is a compound categorical proposition, consisting of two coor- 
dinate clauses, connected by the copulative conjunction but. 
(2 331, a.) 

ip*§- Analyze each clause separately. 

Parsing. 

Not only is a correlative copulative conjunction, relates to but, ren- 
ders the first clause emphatic, but has no grammatical relation to 
other words, according to Rule XXV. Particles have no gram- 
matical relation to other words. 

But is a copulative conjunction, is used to join clauses or elements 
expressing similarity of thought, according to Rule XVI. {Re- 
peat the Rule.) 

Coordinate conjunctions join similar clauses and elements of the same 
nature, class and construction. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

Lament of an Indian Chief. 

Charles Spragcje. 

I will go to my tent and lie down in despair ; 

I will paint me with black, and will sever my hair; 

I will sit on the shore, where the hurricane blows, 

And reveal to the god of the tempest my woes ; 

I will weep, for a season on bitterness fed, 

For my kindred are gone tojthe hills of the dead; 

But they died not by hunger, or lingering decay, — 

The steel of the white man hath swept them away: 

My w r ife and my children, — oh, spare me the tale! 

For who is there left that is kin to G-eehale! 



176 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



III. Examples in False Syntax*. 

1. The Lord hath given and the Lord hath taken away. 

2. Me and him went down street to-day. 

3. Between him and I there is some disparity of years; but none 
between him and she. 

4. These people have indeed acquired great riches, but do not 
command esteem. 

5. He does not lack courage,, but is defective in sensibility* 

6. If he acquires riches,, they will corrupt his mind, and be use- 
less to others. 

IV. — Write ten sentences containing coordinate clauses. 



s = 

H | 

fc * « , 

© I 



til. 1,2,3,4, 



Inferences 



Compound Sentences, a. 6, c Remark. 



Rule and Formula. 



Model. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 177 

LESSON XLIX. 
Agreement Trith Compound Elements. 

385. The agreement of verbs and pronouns with two or more 
nouns or pronouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, is three- 
fold, viz; 

I. As to Person. 
II. As to Number. 
III. As to Gender (pronouns). 

I. Agreement in Person. 

1. If one of the nouns or pronouns is of the first person, and 

the other or others of the second or the third persons, 
the verb or pronoun must be of the first person j as, 

a. I y not he 7 am sick. 

2. If one of the nouns or pronouns is of the second person 

and the other or others of the third, the verb or pronoun 
must be of the second person ; as, 
a. Thou, not they 7 art welcome. 

II. Agreement in Number. 

1. If either or both represent more than one object, the verb 

or pronoun must be plural ; as, 

a. George and his brother were absent 

b. George or his brothers were absent. 

c. Then shalt thou bring forth that man or that woman 

unto thy gate, and shalt stone them with stones till 
they die. 

2. If they represent the same object, or if either of them is 

modified by each, every, or no, the verb or pronoun 
must be singular ; as, 

a. Bread and milk is excellent food for children. 

b. Each day and each hour brings its own duties and 

trials. 

c. Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory ; 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. If the verb or pronoun refers to the one and not to the 
other, it must be in the same number as the one to 
which it refers ; as, 

a. George, and not his brothers, was absent. 

b. They, not John, love me. 

c. George and his sister tore his cap. 

III. Agreement in Gender* 

1. If a pronoun refers to two or more nouns or pronouns, 

and if one is masculine and the other or others feminine 
or neuter, or both, the pronoun must be masculine ; as, 

a. They (the Passions) snatched her (Music's) instruments 
of sound ; (for,) each would prove His own expressive 
power. 

Remark. — Some of the Passions are regarded as masculine; as, Fear, Anger, 
Despair ; and others as feminine ; as, Hope, Pity, Melancholy. — 
gee Collins's Ode on the Passions. 

2. If a pronoun refers to two or more objects, and if one is 

a female and the other or others without sex, the pro- 
noun must be feminine ; as, — 

a. Each woman and each child lost her liberty. 

Note 1. — Grammarians generally say that verbs and pronouns 
having compound subjects, agree with the most worthy in person and 
gender. The first person is regarded as more worthy than the second 
or third, and the second, than the third; and the masculine gender is 
regarded as more worthy than the feminine or neuter, the feminine than 
the neuter. 

Note 2. — Some persons think that a pronoun referring to both male 
and female objects would be a great convenience. Were such a pronoun 
really needed, it could be coined, as we might follow the analogy of the 
German word g-esclawister, which means brothers and sisters. When 
a pronoun refers to objects of both sexes, the masculine form is used. 
Thus, in speaking to a class of boys and girls, it is correct to say, "Let 
each pupil raise his hand." To say his or her would be pretentiously 
precise, and is not sanctioned by good usage. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 179 

386. From the facts stated above, (§ 385), we infer the following 
rules, viz : 

BFLE XVII. 

A Verb having a COMPOUND SUBJECT agrees in PERSON 
with the MOST WORTHY, and in NUMBER according to SIGNI- 
FICATION. 

FORMULA XVII. 

Species ? Principal Parts ? Conjugation ? Mode ? 
Tense? Form? Agreement? Rule XVII. 

RULE XVIII. 

A Pronoun having a compound antecedent agrees in 
PERSON and gender with the MOST WORTHY, and in, NUMBER 
according to signification. 

FORMULA XVIII. 

Species? Person, Number and Gender? Agree- 
ment? Rule XVIII. Construction? Case? Rule. 

387. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. James , Henry and George study grammar and history. 

Analysis. 

This is a simple categorical proposition, of which James, Henry and 
George i3 the subject, being compound, of which and is the 
connective and James, Henry and George, the coordinate parts; 
study grammar and history is the predicate, being complex, of 
which study is the basis, modified by grammar and history, an ob- 
jective element of the first class, being compound, of which 
and is the connective and grammar and history the coordinate 
parts. 

Parsing. 

And is a coordinate conjunction of the copulative kind, it is used to 
contract discourse and join elements in the same predicament, 
according to Rule XVI : Coordinate Conjunctions join similar clauses 
and elements of the sam,e nature, class, and construction. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Study is a transitive verb (J 83), principal parts, study, studied; 
studied, of the weak conjugation, indicative mode, present tense, 
common form, and must be in the third person, plural number, 
to agree with its compound subject, according to Rule XVII: A 
verb having a compound subject agrees in person with the most worthy y 
and in number according to signification. 

Ex. 2. James or his sister was destroying his cap. 

Analysis* 

This is a simple categorical proposition of which James or his sister 
is the subject, being compound, of which or is the connective and 
James and sister, the coordinate parts, sister being modified by his, 
, an adjective element of the first class; teas destroying his cap is 
the predicate, being complex, of which was destroying is the basis, 
modified by his cap, an objective element of the first class, being 
complex, of which cap is the basis, modified by his, an adjective 
element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Um is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number and 
masculine gender, to agree with the name of an object of like 
qualities (either James or some one else mentioned before), accord- 
ing to Rule III. (Repeat the Rule.) It i3 placed before cap to 
limit it, and must therefore be in the possessive case, according 
to Rule VII. (Repeat the Rule.) 

Ex. 3. Tliou and thy sons with thee shall bear the iniquity of 
your priesthood. 

Parsing. 

Your is a personal pronoun, of the second person, plural number, 
masculine gender, to agree with its compound subject, thou and 
thy sons, according to Rule XVIII: A pronoun having a compound 
antecedent agrees in person and gender with the most worthy, and in 
number according to signification. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. His meat was locusts and wild honey. 

2. One day the poor woman and her idiot boy were missed from 
the market-place. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



181 



3. Every insect and every bird was hushed. 

4. Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved. 

5. They climb the distant mountains and read their doom in the 
setting sun. 

6. Thus I am doubly armed. My death and life, 
My bane and antidote, are both before me. 

7. A man severe he was, and stern to view ; 
I knew him well, and every truant knew. 

8. A literary, a scientific, a wealthy and a poor man were assem- 
bled in one room. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Professing regard and to act differently, discovers a base mind. 

2. My brother and him are tolerable grammarians. 

3. Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him? 

4. He bought a Webster and Worcester's dictionary. 

5. Let each man and each woman do their duty. 

6. John and Mary is coming. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing compound elements* 



SB 
H 

H 

m 
S 

a 
& 
& 
c 





I. Person 



ri, a. 
12, a. 



S 
- 

« -I II. Number. 

fa 



u 

< 



1, a, b, c. 

2, <z, 6, c. 

3, a, 6, c. 
1, a. Remark. 

Notes 1, 2. 

Rules and Formulas XTII 5 XYIII. 
Models. 1, 2, 3. 



III. Gender 



l 2, a. 



18 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON L. 
Contraction and Abridgment. 

388. In order to arrive at a just conclusion with regard to contrac- 
tion and abridgment, and elucidate a correct theory on the subject, it 
will be necessary to consider the nature of language, 

389 Language is the embodiment of thought, sentiment or volition 
in words. How do we think, feel and will? Is language essential to 
our mental operations, or is it only an outgrowth, a dress which may 
be doffed and donned at pleasure ? Our thoughts are momentary : 
their formulation is in time, and is the result of art. We think, feel 
and will, without the use of language We employ language only 
when we wish to preserve our thoughts or communicate them to others. 
The cultivated man thinks and formulates at the same time, so much 
80, that the man who thinks and writes will be more exact, but not so 
ready as he who utters his thoughts and sentiments as they are shaped 
by his mental faculties. 

390. Grammarians heretofore, in their empirical way, have 
supplied words m order to explain difficult constructions. This is 
certainly an unphilosophical process. Language is the expression 
of mental acts, and what is not expressed is not language. If the 
language is properly framed, it will convey a clear idea to the mind 
of the reader and hearer, and hence the grammarian should explain 
language as he finds it, and avoid that tinkering process of equiva- 
lents and ellipses w r hich only u darkens counsel by words without 
knowledge.'" 

391. Contraction is the omission and changing of 
common parts of a compound sentence, and has been 
treated of in Lessons XLVIII and XLIX. 

392. Abridgment is the omission and changing of 
certain parts of a subordinate clause, and will be treated 
in Lesson LII. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 183 

I Substantive Clauses* 

a. The soldiers desired nothing more than (that they might 
know =p=) to know where the enemy was. 

I. I knew not (what I should do — ) what to do. 

c. I know not (where I shall go =) where to go, (whom I 

shall send—) whom to send, (when I should stop =) 

WHEN TO STOP. 

d. I believe (that he is =) him to be an honest man. 

2. Adjective Clauses. 

a. The ship (which sailed =) sailing so beautifully, was 

wrecked. 

b. A man who perseveres = a persevering man will succeed. 

c. There are moral principles (which slumber =) slumbering 

in the souls of the most depraved. 

3. Adverbial Clauses. 

a. The bed is (shorter than that a man can stretch =) too 

short for a man to stretch himself in it. 

b. My friend was so elated (as that he forgot his appoint- 

ment =) AS TO FORGET HIS APPOINTMENT. 

c. (Since a youth is their leader ===) a youth being their 

leader, what can they do? 

d. (When they approached — ) on approaching the city, 

they were met by the citizens. 

e. (When I had finished =) having finished my letter, I 

retired. 
393. Let us examine a few sentences more closely. 

(1.) The learned pagans ridiculed the Jews for being (== because 

THEY WERE = ON ACCOUNT OF THEIR BEING) a Credulous 

people. 

Remark 1. — The expression for being = because they were, and 
on account of their Being, differ in form but not in signification. 

Remark 2. — No subject is expressed before being, because Jews, to 
which being refers, is close to it, and a repetition of the word in the 
same sentence would neither promote its perspicuity nor render it 
more elegant. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(2.) I must be instructed in order to be a scholar (— in order 

THAT I MAY BE A SCHOLAR.) 

Remark. — That I is omitted, because it is not necessary to make 
the sense clearer, and may be is changed into the infinitive to be. The 
attribute remains unchanged. 

(3.) He broke John's and Mary's slates* 
He broke John and Mary's slate. 

Remark. — When two or mors objects possess a similar thing, the 
sign of possession is annexed to each noun; but when they possess the 
same thing, it is annexed to the last noun only. 

(4.) John is older than George ( = than George is old.) 

Remark. — Than is used after adjectives and adverbs expressing 
comparison, diversity, $c. It therefore expresses a relation, not of 'objects 
but of thoughts, and the words following it are part of a proposition, 
contracted or abridged, which should be regarded as its complement. 
The proposition of which George forms a part is the complement of 
than, but, the common parts being omitted, George remains in the 
nominative case. 

394. From these facts, the following conclusions may be drawn: 

I. Language is artificial, and is therefore subject to certain rules of 

art 

II. One of these rules is, if possible, to use but one word in a sen- 

tence to represent the same thing. 

III. Upon this principle contraction and abridgment 

depend. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 185 

LESSON LL 
Arrangement and Transposition, 

395. The natural order of the words of an English sentence 
is as follows : 

1. Subject + Predicate. 

2. Subject + Copula + Attribute. 

3. Adjective Elements. 

a. Adjectives before nouns. 

b. Adjective Phrases and Clauses after nouns. 

c. Possessives before nouns. 

d. Appositives after nouns or pronouns. 

4. OKjective Elements after verb. 

a. Indirect, if the shorter word, before the direct. 

b. Indirect, if the longer word or preceded by a prepO 

sition. after the direct 

5. Adverbial Element 

a. Adverbs as in Lesson XXI. 

b. Phrases and Clauses after the verb. 

6. Interrogative Sentences. 

a. Direct: subject after auxiliary. 

b. Indirect : antecedent or modifier of interrogative, after 

the sentence. 

7. Hypothetical Propositions. 

a. Protasis. Apodosis. 

396. Words, phrases and clauses are often transposed, in order to 
render a sentence more emphatic or promote its strength. 

1. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 

2. Silver and gold have I none. 

3. To accomplish this, many things must be done. 

18* 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

397. Transposition often changes the sense of a sentence. Take 
the sentence, That is John's horse, and That horse is John's. In the 
former the thing possessed is prominent; in the latter, the possessor. 
So too with the sentence, This is a sword of Washington's and This 
is Washington's sword, the position of the possessive is changed 
in order to make the possessor prominent. By the application of 
this principle, many anomalies can be explained. 

398. Point out the natural order of the words in the following extracts: 

1. Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 

Singj heavenly Muse. 

2. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 

3. A stranded soldier's epaulet 
The waters cast ashore. 

4. Gorgeous was the time, yet brief as gorgeous. 

5. Oft have the laws of each poetic strain 
The critic-verse employed; yet still unsung 
Lay this prime subject, though importing most 
A poet's name; for fruitless is the attempt, 

By dull obedience and by creeping toil, - 
Obscure to conquer the severe ascent 
Of high Parnassus. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 187 

LESSON LII. 
Infinitives and Participles. 

399. Infinitives and Participles are used in three ways, viz : 

I. As Substantives. 
II. As Modifiers. 
III. To Abridge Discourse. 

400. The Infinitive is used 

1. Substantively, viz: 

a. As Subject; as, To love is pleasant. 

b. As Appositive ; as, Time to come is called future. 

c. As Attribute ; as, To be good is to be happy. 

d. As the Complement of a verbal adjective ; as, He was 

desirous to go. 

e. As the complement of an inceptive verb; as, He tries 

to learn. 

2. Adverbially. 

a. After a verb of motion to show its design; as, He went 

to visit his brother. 

b. To express purpose ; as, The cavalry were sent to recon- 
noiter. 

c. To denote excess or defect; as, He was too sick to 

sit UP. 

3. To Abridge Discourse. 

a. With a Substantive Connective ; as, He knows how to 

do it. 

b. With a subject in the objective case ; as, He told him 

to GO. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

401. The Participle is used 

1. Substantively 9 viz : 

a. As the subject of a finite verb ; as, Stealing is base, 

b. As an Attribute equivalent to the subject; as, Seeing 

i8 BELIEVING. 

c. As the Complement of a verb or preposition; as, We 
should avoid breaking a promise; He was killed 
by falling from Ms horse. 

2. Adjectively ; as, The roaring billows terrify the tremb- 

ling passengers. 

3. To Abridge Discourse. 

a. With a noun or pronoun in the nominative as its 

subject, forming the Absolute Construction; 

as, The door being open, the thief escaped. 

b. Referring to the subject, attribute or complement, 

forming the Conjunctive Participial Con- 
struction ; as, Ireland is an island, bounded on the 

west by the Atlantic ocean. 

c. With a preposition instead of a Clause; as, On 

approaching tl>e house, I saw that it ivas on fire; They 
eould not be restrained from hurling darts; I heard of 

HIS COMING. 

402. Infinitives and Participles present the idea of the verb 
without limitation, but ALWAYS refer to some subject. 

403. Whenever the subject of an infinitive is expressed, it is in 
the objective case. Hence, we infer 

RULE XIX. 

The SUBJECT of the Infinitive must be in the objective 
CASE ; as, He told him to go. 

FORMULA XIX. 

Species? Person? Number? Gender? Construc- 
tion? Case? Rule XIX. 

Remark. — Whenever an infinitive is used as the subject of another 
verb, and its subject is expressed, that subject must be preceded by 
the preposition for ; as, For me to live is Christ. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 189 

404. Sometimes clauses are abridged, the connective being changed 
into a preposition, the subject being put in the possessive case, and 
the verb being changed into a participle ; as, I was not aware of his 

COMING = THAT HE WOULD COME ; Possessed BEYOND THE Muse's PAINT- 
ING = what the Muse could paint. Hence, we infer 

RULE XX. 

The SUBJECT of a PARTICIPLE, governed by a preposition, 
must be in the POSSESSIVE case, 

FORMULA XX. 

Species ? Person ? Number ? Gender ? Agreement ? 
(Rule III.) Construction ? Case? Rule XX. 

405. After certain verbs, subordinate propositions are frequently 
abridged by omitting the connective and changing the subject into 
the objective form, and the verb into the participial form ; as, We 

Saw THEM APPROACHING US = THAT THEY WERE APPROACHING US. 

Hence, we infer 

RULE XXI. 

The subject of the complementary participle must he in 
the OBJECTIVE case. 

FORMULA XXI. 

Species? Person? Numt>er? Gender? Agreement? 
Rule III. Construction? (ase? Rule XXI. 

406. Infinitives and Participles used to designate the act or state 
expressed by a verb have the construction of nouns. But in sub- 
ordinate clauses they abridge discourse, and depend on the word 
denoting the object of which they assert an act or state. Hence, we 
infer, — 

RULE XXII. 
An Infinitive or Participle used to abridge a clause depends on 
the word denoting the object of which it asserts an act or state; 
as, I saw him fall ; He tries to learn ; Truth, crushed to 
earth, shall rise again, 

FORMULA XXII. 

Species? Principal Parts? Conjugation? Form 
and Condition? Reference? Dependence? Rule XXIL 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

407. I. Models off* Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. To love is pleasant. 

Analysis. 

To love is pleasant is a simple categorical proposition, of which to love 
is the subject, is pleasant is the predicate, of which is is the copula, 
and pleasant, the attribute. 

Parsing. . 

To love is a verbal noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, and is construed as the subject of is, and must, therefore, be 
in the nominative case, according to Rule I. 

Ex. 2. The general sent him to reconnoiter 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which the general is the 
subject, being complex, &c; sent him to reconnoiter, is the-t>re- 
dicate, being complex, of which sent is the basis, modified by him 
to reconnoiter, an abridged adverbial element of the third class, 
of which the connective is omitted, the subject is changed to the 
objective form, and the verb to the infinitive form. 

Parsing. 

Him is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, it is construed as the subject of the infinitive to 
reconnoiter, and must, therefore, be in the objective case, accord- 
ing to Rule XIX: The subject of the infinitive must be in the objective 
case. 

To reconnoiter is a transitive verb, principal parts, reconnoiter, recon- 
noitered, reconnoiter ed ; of the weak conjugation; it is the present 
active infinitive, and refers to him on which it depends, according 
to Rule XXII : An Infinitive or Participle used to abridge a clause, 
depends on the word denoting the object of which it asserts an act or 
state. 

Ex. 3. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

Parsing. 

Crushed is a transitive verb, principal parts, crush, crushed, crushed : 
of the weak conjugation; it is the present-passive participle, and 
depends on the word truth, according to Rule XXII. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 191 

3. I heard of his coming. 
Analysis. 

/ heard of his coming is a complex categorical proposition, of which 
/is the subject, and heard of his coming, the predicate, being com- 
plex, of which heard is the basis, modified by of his coming, an 
abridged objective element of the third class, of which the prepo- 
sition of is. substituted for the connective, the subject is changed 
into the possessive form, his, and the verb is changed into the 
participial form, coming. 

Parsing. 

Of is a preposition, and connects the abridged substantive clause, 
his coming to heard, according to Rule XII: The preposition connects 
words representing related things. 

His is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
and masculine gender ; it is construed as the subject of coming, 
and must, therefore, be in the possessive case, according to 
Rule XX: The subject of a participle governed by a preposition 
must be in the possessive case. 

Coming is an intransitive verb, principal parts, come, came, come, of 
the strong conjugation, it is the present active participle, and 
refers to his on which it depends, according to Rule XXII. 

5. We saw them approaching us. 

Analysis. 

We saw them approaching us is a complex categorical proposition, 
of which we is the subject, and saw them approaching us, the pre- 
dicate, being complex," of which saio is the basis, modified by them 
approaching us, an abridged objective element of the third class, 
of which the connective is omitted, the subject is changed to the 
objective form them, and the verb to the participial form ap- 
proaching, modified by us, an objective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Them is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
and masculine gender. It is construed as the subject of the com- 
plementary participle approaching , and must, therefore, be in the 
objective case, according to Rule XXI: The subject, &c. 



192 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing". 

1. The boy learned to write. 

2. The girl was anxious to learn. 

3. I heard Spurgeon preach. 

4. I saw him fall. 

5. They ordered him to leave. 

0. I am pleased to see you knitting. 
T. I saw him returning. 

8. I heard of his dying. 

9. They fled, pursued by our cavalry. 

10. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

11. I ordered John to be punished. 
}2. I saw him standing on the corner. 

III. Examples in False Syntax, 

1. I insist on him staying with me. 

2. I rely on you coming to-morrow. 

3. What do you think of your son marrying? 

4. His father was opposed to him going to Europe, 
ag f 1. Substantively, a. 6, c, d, e. 
H -{ 2. Adverbially. a t b, c. 



as 



ii 



fa 
s 






[ W «1 



5 [_ 3. To Abridge Discourse, a, 6. 
oS f 1. Substantively, a, b, c. 

Si. I 

*S <j 2. Adjectively. 

S [ 3. To Abridge Discourse. a> b, c. 

1. Objective-Subject. Rule and Formula XIX. 

2. Possessi ver Subject. Rule and Formula XX. 

3. Complementary-Participle. Rule and Formula XXI. 

4. Participials. Rule and Formula XXII. 

L.IIL Moaels. l, 2, 3, 4, 



05 

s 
© 

« 

GO 

S 
© 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 193 

LESSON LIII. 
Transito-Dative Yerbs. 

408. Thus far but three species of verbs have been treated, viz; 
Intransitive, Copulative, and Transitive. There remain four species 
yet to be examined, viz: Transito-Dative, Transito- Copulative, Tran- 
sito- Partitive, and Inceptive, 

409. A Transito-Dative verb is a verb followed by a direct and 
an indirect complement, the direct denoting what is done to or for 
the object represented by the indirect; as, James gave me a dollar; 
Me thinks I see her now. 

Note 1. — The following and verbs of similar meaning belong 
to this species, viz : Ask, bring, buy, carry, deny, do, draw, find, get 
give, lend, leave, make, order, pass, play, present, promise, provide, refuse, 
sell, send, sing, show, teach, tell, throw and write. 

Note 2. — A sentence containing a Transito-Dative verb may take 
one of four forms, viz: 

1. William taught me grammar. 

2. William taught grammar to me. 

3. Grammar was taught to me. 

4. I was taught grammar. 

Note 3.— Of the two complements which follow Transito-Dative 
verbs, the one denoting that to or for which anything is done, is 
called the indirect complement; the one denoting what is done is 
called the direct complement 

Note 4. — The relative position of the direct and the indirect 
complements depends on their nature. The natural order of con- 
struction is to place the indirect first, but this order is reversed, 
when the indirect complement has more quantity or is a longer 
word than the direct complement. Observe the difference in the 
following sentences: 

(1.) John gave him a dollar, 
(2.) John gave it to him. 

In the second sentence, Strength requires that the indirect com- 

vlement should be placed after the direct complement. The student 

19 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

should note the fact, that whenever the indirect follows the direct, 
it must be preceded by a preposition. When the indirect com- 
plement is preceded by for, it is always placed after the direct 
object; as, He gave a dollar for it. 

Note 5. — When the verb takes the passive form, either object 
may become the subject; as, Grammar was taught me; or, I was 
taught grammar, the latter being the preferable form on account of 
strength. Whenever the- verb is changed to the passive form and 
the indirect complement made the subject, the direct complement 
remains in -the objective case. In the above sentence, the word gram- 
mar is used to complement the verb taught, and should be parsed by 
Rule VIII. This construction is identical with the Latin, tfgo 
rogatus sum sententiam, or the Greek, 'Eporcjuai ttjv yvebjunv = I was 

ASKED MY OPINION. 

410. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. (1.) John gave George A dollar. 

Analysis. 

John gave George a dollar is a simple categorical proposition, of which 
John is the subject, and gave George a dollar is the predicate, 
being complex, of which gave is the basis, modified by George, an 
indirect objective element of the first class, and also by a dollar, a 
direct objective element of the first class, being complex, of which 
dollar is the basis, distributed by a, an adjective element of the 
first class. 

Parsing. 

Gave is a Transito- Dative verb, principal parts, give, gave, given, of 
the strong conjugation, indicative mode, past tense, common form, 
and of the third person, singular number, to agree with its subject 
John, according to Rule II : The finite verb must agree with its 
subject in person and number. 

George is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, and is construed as the indirect complement after the 
iransito-dative verb gave, and must therefore be in the objective 
case, according to Rule VIII : The complement of a verb must be in 
the objective case. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 195 

Dollar is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the complement of gave, and 
must therefore be in the objective case, according to Rule VIII: 
The complement of the verb must be in the objective case. 

Ex. (2.) He gave it to John. 

Analysis. 

He gave it to John is a simple categorical proposition, of which he 
is the subject, and gave it to John is the predicate, being complex, 
of which gave is the basis, modified (*) by it, an objective element 
of the first class, and ( 2 ) by to John, an indirect objective element 
of the second class, of which to is the connective and John the 
objective part. 

Parsing. 

To is a preposition, and shows the relation of John to gave, which 
words it connects, according to Rule XII: The preposition connects 
words representing related things. 

John is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, and is construed as the complement of the prepo- 
sition to, and must therefore be in the objective case, according 
to Rule XIII: The complement of a preposition must be in the objective 
case. 

Ex. (3.) I was taught grammar. 
Analysis. 

I was taught grammar is a simple categorical proposition, of which / 
is the subject, and was taught grammar is the predicate, being 
complex, of which was taught is the basis, modified by grammar, 
an objective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Grammar is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the complement of taught, and 
must therefore be in the objective case, according to Rule VIII: 
The complement of a verb must be in the objective case. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Please lend me a pencil. 

2. He refused me an audience. 

3. Show her your picture. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. They presented a watch to Mr. Seott. 

5. She played many pretty pieces for the company. 

6. Did he promise you his assistance? 

7. They threw a rope to the man overboard. 

8. Make Charles a pair of shoes. 

9. Sing us a song. 

10. Please get me a drink. 

11. I will sell you the book for a dollar, 

12. Ask James for his Dictionary. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. They gave him it. 

2. Show to her your picture. 

3. They presented to the speaker a cane. 

4. Sing for us a song. 

5. You were paid a high compliment by Miss Fanny. 

6. We were shown an apple that weighed five pounds. 

Remark. — When the verb is changed from the active to the passive 
form, the direct complement should be made the subject, not the 
indirect, 

IV. Write ten sentences containing Transito-Dative verbs. 



1. Notes. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
Outline 

' 2. Models. 1, 2, 3. 






ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 197 

LESSON LIV. 
Transito-Copulative and Transito-Partitive Verbs. 

411. A Transito-Copulative verb asserts an activity 
which affects an object of which it predicates an attribute; 
as, They elected him president ; She dyed her shawl red. 

Note 1. — The following and verbs of similar meaning belong 
to this species, viz: Appoint, call, consider, constitute, create, elect, esteem, 
make, name, paint, reckon, regard, render, style and think. 

Note 2. — When these verbs take the passive form, the complement 
becomes the subject, and the attribute remains after the verb, but is 
attracted into the case of the subject ; as. They called her Julia —She 
was called Julia. 

Note 3. — A similar construction is found in several languages, and 
this mode of treating it explains some very difficult grammatical ques- 
tions. We find it in French; as, Ma divinite* ne me sers plus qu' a 
rendre mon malheur e'ternal = My divinity serves rather to make my 
misfortune eternal. So, too, with Greek. 'Ovrot 6e eldeor /llev ovdev 
kdeovTo XPV (JT0V = They did not regard beauty necessary. -<£o/3of r}v 
aldcj tcaXovjuev = Fear which we call bashfulness. In both sentences 
the verb is followed by two words, one of which is the attribute, and 
agrees with the other in number, gender and case, according to Rule 
IV. This rule explains the gender of ijv and the case of XP 7 ! 07 ™* 

412. A Transito-Partitive verb asserts an activity 
which affects only a part of the object represented by its 
complement; as, He drinks water ; he felt the board" 

Note 1. — These verbs are generally followed by the preposition 
of. 

Note 2. — All verbs which express an operation of the senses (except 

sight) or of the appetites belong to this species. 

19* 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

413. I. models of Analysis and Parsing* 

(1.) They elected him president. 
Analysis. 

This is a simple categorical proposition, of which they is the subject; 
elected him president is the predicate, being complex, of which 
elected is the basis, modified by him president, an objective element 
of the first class, being complex, of which him is the basis, modi- 
dified by president, an adjective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Elected is a transito-copulative verb, principal parts, elect, elected, 
elected, of the weak conjugation, indicative mode, past tense, 
common form, and of the third person, plural number, to agree 
with its subject they according to Rule II: The finite verb must 
agree with its subject in person and number. 

Him is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender. It is construed as the complement of elected, 
and must, therefore, be in the objective case, according to Rule 
VIII : The complement of a verb must be in the objective case. 

President is a common noun, of the third person, and of the singular 
number, masculine gender, and objective case to agree with him, 
according to Rule IV: The attributive noun agrees in number, 
gender, and case with the noun or pronoun denoting the same object. 

Ex. 2. He ate of the tree of the knowledge of good and 
evil. 

Analysis. 

This is a simple categorical proposition,*of which he is the subject, 
and ate of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil is the predicate, 
being complex, of which ate is the basis, modified by of the tree, 
$c, an indirect objective element of the second class, of which of 
is the connective, and tree, £c, the objective part, being complex, 
&c. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 199 

Parsing. 

Ate is a transito-partitive verb, principal parts, eat, ate, eaten, of the 
strong conjugation, indicative mode, past tense, common form, 
and in the third person, singular number, to agree with its sub- 
ject he, according to Rule II. (Repeat the Rule.) 

Of is a preposition, and connects tree to ate, according to Rule XII: 
The preposition connects words representing related things. 

Remahk. — The remaining words are parsed in the ordinary way. 

Ex. 3. He drank wine. 
Analysis. 

He drank wine is a simple categorical proposition, of which he is the 
subject, and drank wine is the predicate, being complex, of which 
drank is the basis, modified by wine, an objective element of the 
first class. 

Parsing. 

Drank is a Transito-Partitive verb, principal parts, drink, drank, 
drunken or drunk, of the strong conjugation, indicative mode, past 
tense, common form, and in the third person, singular number, 
to agree with its subject he, according to Rule II: The finite verb 
must agree with its subject in person and number. 

Wine is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, is used as the complement of the Transito-Partitive 
verb drank, and must therefore be in the objective case, according 
to Rule VIII : The complement of a verb must be in the objective case. 



§ 



II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing* 

1. They appointed me chairman. 

2. Do you call your daughter Mary? 

3. The people consider them impostors. 

4. The Senate elected him clerk. 

5. They constituted him their king. 

6. Paint the door blue. 

7. He tasted the grapes , 



200 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



8. He smelt the fragrance of roses. 

9. Does John eat peaches? 

10. He felt the table 

11. They touched the ceiling. 

12. The officers caught him. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. They called him Jane. 

2. She was considered a good teacheress. 

3. They elected her professoress of mathematics. 

4. They regarded her a gifted poetess. 

5. They named their daughter Francis. 
G. They made her a doctoress. 

IV. Write ten sentences, using Transi to-Copulative and Partitive 
verbs. 



3 
C 



1. Transito-Copulative verbs. Notes 1, 2 and 3. 

2. Transito-Partitive verbs. Notes 1 and 2. 
b 3. Models. 1, 2, 3. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 201 



LESSON Iff. 
Inceptive Terbs and Verfes modified by Adjectives. 

414. An Inceptive verb expresses the beginning of an act 
and requires an infinitive to complete its meaning; as, He tries 
to learn ; He WISHED to go. 

Remark. — These verbs generally express desire, intention, effort, &c. 
See I 424. 

415. Some Intransitive verbs are modified by adjectives. 
This occurs when the mind reverts to the quality or condition 
of the object denoted by the subject of the verb, and not to the 
place, time, cause, or manner of the attribute expressed by the 
verb. The object is represented, — 

1. As continuing in a certain state; as, — 

(a.) The book lies open on the desk. 
(b.) The fields look green, 
(c.) He remained idle all day. 

2. As changing from one condition to another; as ? — 

(a.) The whole family have fallen sick, 
(b.) The sailors grew insubordinate. 

416. From the foregoing principles we infer, — 

RULE XXIII. 

A verb re/erring to the quality or condition of the object 
denoted by its subject, is modified by an adjective. 

FORMULA XXIIIo 

Species? Comparison? Use? Construction? — 

Rule XXIII. 

P 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

417. — 1. Models of Analysis and Parsing* 

Ex. 1. — He tries to learn. 

Analysis. 

lie tries to learn is a complex categorical proposition, of which he 
is the subject, and tries to learn is the predicate, of which 
tries is the basis, modified by to learn, an abridged adverbial 
element of the third class, of which the connective and sub- 
ject are omitted, and the verb changed into the infinitive 
form, to learn. 

Parsing. 

Tries is an Inceptive verb, principal parts, try, tried, tried, of the 
weak conjugation, &c. 

To learn is a Transitive verb, principal parts, learn, learned, 
learned, of the weak conjugation ; it is the present active in- 
finitive, and refers to he, on which it depends, according to 
Rule XXII. (Repeat the Rule.) 

Ex. 2. — I feel sick. 
Analysis. 

I feel sick is a simple categorical proposition, of which I is the 
subject, and feel sick is the predicate, being complex, of 
which feel is the basis, modified by the complementary ad- 
jective sick. 

Parsing. 

Sick is a Qualifying adjective, compared, sick, sicker, sickest, 
of the positive degree, is used to complete the meaning of 
the verb feel, which it modifies according to Rule XXIII. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 203 



II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Misfortunes never come single. 

2. The weather continues stormy. 

3. The patient feels comfortable this morning. 

4. A good deed shall not go unrewarded. 

5. The girl looked pale. 

6. The expedition proved disastrous. 

7. How clear the bell rings ! 

8. He always seems calm. 

9. A rose by any name would smell as sweet. 

10. The house stood empty from month to month. 

11. Honey tastes sweet. 

12. Moses' anger waxed hot. 

13. The spicy breezes 

Blow soft o'er Ceylon's isle. 

14. The culprit turned pale. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. He turned round quick. 

2. It sounds wrongly to my ear. 

3. The trumpet sounds bold. 

4. The lamp shines dimly. 

5. Gold rings differently from tin. 

6. Every thing looked favorably for our arms. 

7. My pen writes good. 

8. The stone feels smoothly. 

9. The meteor fell rapid. 

10. The wind blew soft from the sea. 

11. Strangely as it may appear, he was mad. 

12. The moon shines brightly. 

13. He became very angrily. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing verbs modified 

by adjectives* 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON LVI. 

Peculiar Construction of Yerbs. 

418. The peculiar constructions of verbs are the fol- 
lowing, viz.: — 

1. Agreement of Verbs and Partitives. 

2. Agreement of a Verb with several subjects. 

3. Infinitives and Participles after Verbs. 

419. In Section 76, Remark 2, a list of Partitives is given. 
As these words generally express quantity in its extensiveness, 
the idea of number does not inhere in them. If part of one 
object or one mass is meant, the verb should be singular; but 
if part of several objects or masses is meant, the verb should be 
plural; as, — 

1. Most of the WORK WAS well done. 

2. Most of the new students are males. 

3. Three-fourths of the MEN WERE discharged. 

4. TJiree-fourths of the MONEY WAS returned. 

5. All of them were present. 

6. All of IT IS ours. 

Remark 1. — Such expressions as " nine-tenths of the work" "three- 
fourths of the money " &c, designate but one part, and hence the verbs 
agreeing with them should be singular. 

Remark 2. — If the words number, part, &c. are modified by an arti- 
cle, they are nouns, not partitives, and the verb must agree with them 
in number, not with the basis of the modifying phrase; as, A part 
of the exports consists of tea; The number of persons present was large. 

Remark 3. — A number of is sometimes equivalent to several; as, A 
number of ladies were present. 

420. The agreement of verbs with two or more subjects was 
partially treated in § 385. When two or more singular nouns 
express a collective idea, and are connected by the conjunction 
and, the verb must be singular, viz. : — 

1. If the nouns represent but one object, — 

(a.) In its parts; as, Flesh and blood (man) hath not re- 
vealed it unto thee. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 205 

(b.) Under different aspects ; as, The saint, the father, and 

the HUSBAND PRAYS. 

(c.) By repetition ; as, There is a wisdom, a wonderful wis- 
dom, which we cannot fathom. 

2. If several singular subjects, — 

(a.) Follow the verb ; as, — 

Thirty days hath September, 

April, June, and November. 
(&.) Are modified by each, every, no, or not; as, — 

Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, 
Is our destined end or way. 

3. If some of the subjects are plural, or that nearest the verb is 
modified by no or not; as, All work and no play makes Jack a dull 
boy. 

4. If the subject consists of a phrase, motto, proverb, or any ex- 
pression considered as a whole ; as, To be or not to be, is the ques- 
tion; To err is human. 

5. If the subject is followed by several nouns in apposition, or 
the last noun is a summation of what preceded ; as, A portion of his 
time, five or six hours a day, was devoted to study; War, peace, 
darts, rivers, everything in short, is alive in Homer. 

6. If two or more nouns represent a thing as a whole, or one 
represents a part of which the other represents the complementary 
part; as, The force and direction of personal satire is no longer 
understood. 

1 . When, however, the nouns represent kindred things, and not 
complementary parts, or when the things are distinct and par- 
ticular, the verb must be plural; as, Industry and temperance go 
hand in hand. 

421. As language is but the expression of thought, it follows 
that the grammatical form is determined by the thought which 
the words embody; and hence, if the thought involves unity 
of idea, the verb must be singular ; but if it involves plurality 
of idea, the verb must be plural. This brings us to our defini- 
tion of a noun as given in § 452. Any collocation of words 
which expresses an object or cognition, as a whole or a distinct 
part of something, is singular ; and, of course, if it expresses 
objects or cognitions as wholes or distinct Tpnrtz. it is plural. I 

20 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

repeat, The thought which words embody determines 
their grammatical form. 

Remark. — It seems to me that to say, " Three feet makes a yard" 
"Two and two is four" u Sizte en-feet- and- a- half is a rod," &c. is simply- 
using a collective term to express unity, and that the expressions are 
therefore correct. Authority doubtless is against it; but should the 
logical process prevail over the historical, it would be correct to use the 
singular instead of the plural in all such cases. 

422. I* models of Analysis and Parsing. 

1, Three-fourths of his property was destroyed. 

Analysis. 

This is a simple categorical proposition, of which Three-fourths 
of his property is the subject, being complex, of which three- 
fourths is the basis, modified by the complementary phrase 
of his property, of which of is the connective, and his property 
the objective part, being complex, of which property is the 
basis, modified by his, an adjective element of the first class. 
Was destroyed is the predicate. 

Parsing. 

Three-fourths is a partitive, and expresses a distinct part of the 
object represented by the basis of the complementary phrase, 
of his property ; it is construed as the subject of was destroyed, 
according to Rule I. 

Was destroyed is singular, to agree with three-fourths, which desig- 
nates a distinct part, according to Rule II. 

2. The saint, the father, and the husband prays. 

Analysis. 

This is a simple Categorical proposition, of which The saint, the 
father, and the husband is the subject, being compound, of which 
and is the connective, and saint, father, husband, the coordinate 
parts. Prays is the predicate. 

Parsing. 

Prays is an intransitive verb, &c, and is of the third person sin- 
gular, to agree with its subject, which is singular in significa- 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 207 

tion, since the words saint, father, and husband represent the 
same object under different aspects, according to Rule XVII. A 
verb having a compound subject agrees in person with the most 
worthy, and in number according to signification. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. A portion of our cavalry were dismounted. 

2. This metaphor and metamorphosis of words is curious. 

3. There is plenty of corn in market. 

4. $2,000,000's worth of bonds were negotiated. 

5. All order, all subordination, all unanimity, was lost. 

6. There is a wonderful splendor, variety, and luxuriance in the 

vegetation of those quick and ardent climates. 

7. There are plenty of good words which were never in a dic- 

tionary. 

8. The rudest habitation, the most unpromising and scanty por- 

tion of land, in the hands of an Englishman of taste, becomes 
a little paradise. 

9. Part of the massive walls remain. 

10. These changes in the meanings of words, this ebb and flow 
of significance, is constantly going on. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Three-fourths of the bridge were built of iron. 

2. The whole style and manner of the orator were such as to 

attract all and offend none. 

3. There were much rain and great thunder. 

4. Such generosity and self-denial was never before heard of. 

5. Four-fifths of the surface consist' of rocks. 

6. When soul to soul, and dust to dust, return. 

7. A part of our exports consist of cotton. 

8. Part of our exports consists of cotton. 

9. A part of the crops were injured. 

10. Are there not decision, and principle, and patriotism in our 
public men sufficient to meet such cases? 

IV. Write ten sentences illustrative of the principles contained in 
this Lesson. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON LVIL 

Infinitives and Participles after other Yerbs. Abridged 

Forms. 

423. Infinitives and participles are used to abridge discourse. 
If the abridged clause expresses something which took place prior 
to the time expressed by the verb of the principal clause, the per- 
fect forms of the infinitives and participles should be used; but if 
the abridged clause expresses something present or future to the 
time expressed by the verb of the principal clause, the present 
forms should be used. Verbs in the Subjunctive and Imperative 
modes, together with Infinitives and Participles, are without time. 
The Perfect-Infinitive, or the Perfect-Participle, should be used 
only when the abridged clause of which it forms a part, represents 
a thing as completed. 

424. The present infinitive and the present participle 
are used, — 

1. After certain verbs, the action of which relates to the 
future; as, I wanted to go; I hated to leave. 

Rem\rk. — The following verbs are thus used, viz.': Aim, begin, com- 

viand, consent, desire, design, endeavor, expect, hate, hope, intend, mean, 
offer, propose, purpose, seek, try, want, wish, &c. 

2. Might, could, would, should, and ought, preterites of verbs 
of which the present tense refers to future time, are followed 
by the present infinitive, if they relate to present or future 
time; and by the perfect-infinitive, if they relate to past time; 
as, I ought to go (now); I ought TO have gone (yesterday); 

I could WRITE (now), if I WOULD; I could HAVE WRITTEN 
(yesterday), if 1 had wished to do so. 

3. Remember, when it means to call to mind something pre- 
viously known, must be followed by the perfect infinitive; but 
if it refers to some future act, it should be followed by the 
present infinitive; as, I remember TO HAVE SEEN him; I will 
remember TO CALL. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 209 

4. Recollect is always followed by the perfect infinitive or 
the perfect participle; as, I recollect having seen him. 

425. In the sentence, / have your booh and that of your 
brother, the word that performs the double office of point- 
ing out and representing an object. That is modified by 
the phrase, of your brother. 

426. Such sentences as, " This is an anecdote of Franklin's," 
" This is a discovery of Newton's," &c, can be best explained on 
the principle of abridgment, which takes place when a sentence 
contains two or more words representing the same thing. In the 
above sentences, there is a condensing of thought, and the verbal 
nouns anecdote and discovery express the result of the acts of re- 
lating or discovering anything, and as these nouns virtually convey 
a verbal idea, the participle representing the same act is omitted, 
and hence the possessive case after the preposition. Thus: This is 
an anecdote of Franklin's (relating). Franklin's should be parsed 
by Rule VI. (| 162), and the word relating is omitted, because the 
word anecdote conveys the same idea. 

427. " That head of yours" is not equivalent to " That head of 
your heads" nor yet to " That head of your possessing ," since this 
requires a change of the word yours to your. I have treated these 
words (mine, yours, &c.) in \ 71 and \ 139, 1, Remark 2, and if my 
views are correct and comprehensive, they should explain this seem- 
ing anomaly. These words perform a double office: as pronouns they 
represent objects, and as adjectives they modify the word represent- 
ing the object to which they refer. In this expression, yours repre- 
sents the person addressed, and modifies head, the word represent- 
ing the object to which it refers. Besides, the tinkering process of 
supplying ellipses in such cases is only " darkening counsel by words 
without knowledge," as it renders the thought obscure. If I say, I 
saw that boy of yours do it, the words that boy of yours express 
familiarity or contempt. Compare the Latin " iste tuus," in Cicero's 
Orations. See g 162. 

428. — 1. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

1. He seemed to have lost all hope, 

20* 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which he is the 
subject, and seemed to have lost all hope the predicate, of which 
seemed is the basis, modified by the abridged clause, to have lost 
all hope, of which the connective and subject are omitted, and 
the verb is changed to the infinitive form, to have lost, modified 
by all hope, an objective element of the first class, being com-, 
plex, of which hope is the basis, modified by all, an adjective 
element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

To have lost, is a transitive verb, principal parts, lose, lost, lost, 
of the weak conjugation; it is the perfect active infinitive, and 
depends upon he, according to Rule XXII. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Pitt declared Walpole to have been an excellent minister. 

2. This proved him to have sought to establish himself. 

3. He appeared to have studied Homer with care. 

4. Remember to call on your return. 

5. I remember having seen her several years ago. 

6. He tried hard to excel his class mates. 

7. I purpose going to Europe in May. 

8. He offered to take my son with him. 

9. They designed surprising the enemy. 
10. Did you hope to succeed in that way? 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. I intended to have written to you. 

2. He appeared to die from poison. 

3. He seemed to be drinking. 

4. He endeavored to have obtained it. 

5. You remember seeing him in New York. 

6. He purposed to have gone yesterday. 

7. Henry was commanded to have studied. 

8. They consented to have gone. 

9. We remember hearing him deliver a speech. 
10. I have some recollection of seeing him. 

IV. Write ten sentences illustrating the principles of this Lesson. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 211 

LESSON LVIIL 
Particles. 

429. An Interjection is a word which expresses emo- 
tion ; as, Alas! oh! fie! 

430. There are eight kinds of Interjections, denoting, 

1. Attention, viz: Behold! hark! hist! hush! list! lo! see! 

2. Calling, viz; Hallo! ho! 

3. Disgust, viz: Away! begone! fudge! fie! pshaw! tush! 

4. Salutation, viz: (John) ! welcome ! hail! 

5. Sorrow, viz: Ah! alas! alack! oh! 

6. Taking leave, viz: Adieu! farewell! good-by! 

7. Triumph, viz: Aha! bravo! hurrah! huzza! 

8. Wonder, viz: Indeed! 0, strange! what! 

Remark. — Other classes of words are frequently used as Inter- 
jections. 

431. An Expletive is a word which renders a sentence 
more euphonious, without expressing any additional idea ; 
as ; There is a time for all things. 

Remark. — A Correlative is a word which expresses antithesis ; as, 
Though he slay me, yet will I serve him. 

432. An Intensive is a word which renders a sentence 
more emphatic without expressing any additional idea; 
as, Verily, verily, I say unto you ; Now this is the sub- 
stance of the matter. 



to 

W 

H 



' 1. Interjections. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Remark. 

2. Expletives. 

3. Correlatives. 

4. Intensives, 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

433. Exercise. 

Analyze the following sentences ; select the particles, and tell 
to what species they belong. 

1. EveD in their ashes live their wonted fires. 

2. I sit me down a pe ? sive hour to spend. 

3. I think there is a knot of you 
Beneath that hollow tree. 

4. The moon herself is lost in heaven. 

5. Now abide th faith, hope, charity. 

6. There is a land of pure delight. 

7. Think of others, not only of thyself. 

8. Woe, woe to the riders that trample them down. 

9. Woe worth the day; woe worth the chase! 
10. Lives of great men all remind us 

We can make our lives sublime. 

11. What though the spicy breezes 

Blow soft o'er Ceylon's isle ; 
Though every prospect pleases, 

A nd only man is vile : 
In vain with lavish kindness 

The gifts of God are strown ; 
The heathen in his blindness 

Bows down to wood and stone. 

12. Why, let the flood rage on ! 

There is no tide in woman's wildest passion 
But hath an ebb. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 213 

LESSON LIX. 
Independent Elements. 

434. The Independent Elements express peculiarities of 

thought and sentiment, and include certain 

(1.) Exclamative ] 

(2.) Idiomatic > Forms. 

(3.) Abridged J 

435. The Exclamative include 

(a.) A noun or pronoun representing an object addressed ; as, 

John, bring me the book. 
(b.) An Interjection ; as, Alas! alas ! fair Inez! 

(c.) An Elliptical Exclamative sentence; as, Mary exclaimed 
beautiful! beautiful! 

436. The Idiomatic include 

(a.) Expletive?, Correlatives and Intensives ; as, There is a 

God; Now — then; verily, yea. 
(b.) Pleonasm; as, I know thee, who thou art. 
(c.) A noun used independently to express distance, manner, 

&c; as, He is six years old. 

437. The Abridged include 

(a.) A Participle or Infinitive used independently; as, Seeing 
me, he hurried off; But to proceed, I was there early. 

(b.) An Adjective used absolutely after an Infinitive or 
Participle; as, He was haunted with the dread of being 
poor; The way to be happy is to be good. 

(c.) A noun or pronoun and participle used absolutely; 
as, The rain having ceased, we departed. 

438. As a noun or pronoun used independently or absolutely has 
the same form as the subject of a finite verb, we infer 

RILE &XIV. 

A NOUN or PRONOUN used ABSOLUTELY or independently 
must be in the nominative case. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FORMULA XXIV. 

Species? Person? Number? Gender? (If a pronoun, 
agreement and Rule III.) Construction? Case? Rule 
XXIV. 

439. As Particles are words used to express shades of thought 
and sentiment, but are not connected grammatically with other 
words, we infer 

RULE XXV. 

Particles and independent elements have no gram- 
matical RELATION to other words. 

FORMULA XXV. 
Species ? Use ? Rule ? 

440. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. The rain having ceased, we departed. 
Analysis. 

The rain having ceased, we departed is a complex categorical proposi- 
tion, of which we is the subject ; departed, the rain having ceased is 
the predicate, being complex, of which departed is the basis, 
modified by the rain having ceased, an abridged causal clause or 
adverbial element of the third class, of which the connective is 
omitted, the rain is the subject, being complex, of which rain is the 
basis, distributed by the, an adjective element of the first class; 
having ceased is the predicate, of which the auxiliary is changed 
into the participial form, having. 

Parsing. 

Rain is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is used absolutely with having ceased, and must 
therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule XXIV : A 
noun or pronoun used absolutely or independently must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

Having ceased is an intransitive verb, principal parts, cease, ceased, 
ceased, of the weak conjugation ; it is the perfect active participle, 
and depends upon rain to which it refers, according to Rule XXII: 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 215 

Ex. 2. There is a God. 

Analysis* 

There is a God is a simple categorical proposition, of which a God is 
the subject, being complex, of which God is the basis, distributed 
by a, an adjective element of the first class; there is is the predi- 
cate, of which there is an expletive, and is is the predicate. 

Parsing. 

There is an expletive, a word used to render the sentence more 
euphonious, and has no grammatical relation to the other words 
in the sentence, according to Rule XXV : Particles and independent 
elements have no grammatical relation to other words. 

Ex. 3. Mary, let Clara see you crocheting. 
Analysis. 

This is a complex imperative sentence, of which the independent 
element Mary is the subject, and let Clara see you crocheting is the 
predicate, being complex, of which let is the basis, modified by 
Clara see yon crocheting, an abridged objective element of the third 
class, of which Clara is the objective-subject, and see you cro- 
cheting is the predicate, being complex, of which see is the basis, 
modified by you crocheting, an abridged objective element of the 
third class, of which the connective is omitted, the subject is 
changed into the objective form, and the verb into the participial 
form, crocheting. 

Parsing. 

Mary is a proper noun, of the second person, singular number, 
feminine gender; it represents an object addressed, and must 
therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule XXIV: A 
noun or pronoun used absolutely or independently must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

Clara is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, femi- 
nine gender, and is construed as the subject of the infinitive see, 
and must, therefore, be in the objective case, according to Rule 
XIX : The subject of the infinitive must be in the objective case. 

See is a Transitive verb, principal parts, see, saw, seen, of the strong 
conjugation; it is the present active infinitive (to being omitted 
after let), and refers to Clara, on which it depends, according to 
Rule XXII. 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

You is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular number, 
feminine gender, to agree with its antecedent Mary, according 
to Rule III: A 'pronoun must agree in number, &c; it is con- 
strued as the subject of the complementary participle, crochet- 
ing, and must, therefore, be in the objective case, according to 
Rule XXI : The subject of a complementary participle must be in the 
objective case. 

Crocheting is a transitive verb, principal parts, crochet, crocheted, 
of the weak conjugation; it is the present active participle, and 
refers to you on which it depends, according to Bule XXII. 



II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Hamlet and the Ghost. 

Hamlet. It waves me still: 

Go on, I'll follow thee. 

Ghost. Mark me! 
Hamlet I will. 

Ghost. My hour is almost come, 

When I to sulphurous and tormenting flames 

Must render up myself. 
Hamlet. Alas, poor ghost! 

Ghost. Pity me not, but lend thy serious hearing 

To what I shall unfold. 
Hamlet. Speak ; I am bound to hear. 

2. And God said, Let there be light. 

Remark. — Let and there are expletives, and light is the subject of be. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Him coming in, we departed. 

2. Esteeming themselves wise, they became fools. 

3. Let them and we unite to oppose this growing evil. 

4. They being the most injured, he had reason to love. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing independent elements. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 217 

LESSON LX. 
Modal Propositions. Postulates. 

441. A Modal proposition (§ 300) is one whose pre- 
dicate expresses — 

1. A mere Conception; as, /could paint the how 

upon the bended heavens. 

2. Obligation, propriety or worthiness; as, God 

IS TO BE worshipped ; / SHOULD go. 

3. Necessity | as, /must go (present time); /had to 

go (past time); /shall have to go (future time), 

442. Interrogative sentences (§'s 306-309) ask ques- 
tions, and the answer is correlative to part of the sentence* 

Inquiry is denoted in three ways, viz. : — 

1. By placing the subject after the verb or auxiliary; as, 

Believest THOU this? Have YOU written your letter? 
Did, HE come? 

Remark.— Sentences of this kind are answered hyi/es, no, certainly, &c, 
which are equivalent to the sentence repeated in a declarative form. 
These words (see § 29S, Xotes 1 and 2) are Intensive^, arT'octhig the copula, 
and may be parsed by Rule X or XXV. 

2. By an interrogative pronoun or interrogative adjective ; 

as, Who has my knife? Ans. / WllOM did you 
see? Ans. Him. Which book has he ? Ans. The 
large ONE. 

Uemark. —The noun or pronoun expressing the answer, is in apposition 
with the interrogative pronoun, or the noun modified by the interroga- 
tive adjective, and should, therefore, be parsed by Rule IX. 

3. By an interrogative adverb; as, Where do you live? 

Ans. In Philadelphia. Ho TV did he come? Ans. 
In the cars. 

Remark. — The responsive phrases, in Philadelphia and in the cars, are 
parts of abridged sentences, but may be parsed as adverbial phrases 
modifying the interrogative adverbs where and how. 
Q 21 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

443. The Imperative form of a verb expresses, — - 

1. Command; as, John bring me the book. 

2. Exhortation ; as, Be studious. 

3. Entreaty, prayer; as, Lord, forgive usf 

4. Imprecation ; as, Woe betide thee. 

Remark 1. — The verb in the Imperative is usually classed with the 
finite verb. In modern English, the Imperative consists of the un- 
modified root of the verb referring to the object addressed or com- 
manded, When emphasis is expressed, the pronoun thou or you follows 
the verb as its subject. As the subject of a verb is a word denoting the 
object of which it asserts something, and as the act or state expressed 
by a verb in the imperative is to proceed from the object addressed, the 
noun independent or compellative should be regarded as its subject. In 
connected discourse, the subject is easily determined. 

Remark 2. — The Imperative is used in the seeond and third persons 
singular and in all the persons of the plural. 

444. I* Models of Analysis and Parsing* 

Ex. 1. She would have them recollect that she, too, was a sove- 
reign princess* 

Analysis. 

This is a complex modal proposition, of which she is the subject, and 
would have them recollect, &c, the predicate, being complex, of 
which would is the basis, modified by the abridged objective ele- 
ments, have them recollect, <&c. 

Parsing, 

Would is a transitive verb, principal parts, will, would, past par- 
ticiple wanting, of the strong conjugation, indicative mode, past 
tense, common form, and in the third person, singular number, to 
agree with its subject she, according to Rule II : {Repeat the Rule.) 

Have is a transitive verb, principal parts, have, had, had, of the weak 
conjugation; it is the present active infinitive (to omitted), and 
refers to she on which it depends, according to Rule XXII: (Repeat 
the Rule.) 

Ex. 2. Did he go? Yes, 

Analysis. 

This is a simple interrogative sentence, of which he is the subject, 
and did go the predicate, modified by the responsive particle y««. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 219 



Parsing. 



Yes is an Intensive, and has no grammatical relation to the other 
words in the sentence, according to Rule XXV. 

Remark. — Yes is usually parsed as an adverb of modality by Rule X. 
Ex. 3. Thy kingdom come. 

Parsing. 

Kingdom is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the subject of come, and is, 
therefore, in the nominative case, according to Rule I. 

Come is an intransitive verb, principal parts, come, came, come, of the 
strong conjugation, imperative mode, present tense, imperative 
form, and of the third person, singular number, to agree with its 
subject kingdom, according to Rule II. 

Ex. 4. Woe worth the day. 

Parsing. 

Woe is parsed like kingdom. 

Worth is a transitive verb, used only in the imperative; it is of the 
third person singular, to agree with its subject woe, according to 
Rule II. 



Ex. 5. John, bring me the book. 

Parsing. 

John is a proper noun, of the second person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, and is used to denote the object addressed, and is, 
therefore, in the nominative case, according to Rule XXIV. 

Bring is a transitive verb, principal parts, bring, brought, brought, 
of the weak conjugation, imperative mode, present tense, im- 
perative form, and of the second person singular, to agree with its 
subject John, according to Rule II. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. He had a new suit made. 

2. John made George walk. 

3. He had to beg his way. 

4. Queen, King Richard and Northumberland. 
Queen. And must we be divided? Must we part? 

King Richard. Ay, hand from hand, my love, and heart from 

heart. 
Queen. " Banish us both, and send the king with me. 
Northum. That were some love, but little policy. 
Queen. Then, whither he goes, thither let me go. 
King Richard. So two, together weeping, make one woe. 

Weep thou for me in France, I for thee here. 

5. I think there be six Eichmonds in the field; 
Five have I slain to-day instead of him : — 
A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse ! 

6. Fall he that must beneath his rival's arms, 
And live the rest secure of future harms. 

7. "Woe worth the chase ! Woe worth the day ! 

8. Ruin seize thee, ruthless king ! 
Confusion on thy banners wait! 

9. For me, when I forget the darling theme, 
Whether the blossom blows, the Summer ray 
Russets the plain, inspiring Autumn gleams, 
Or Winter rises in the blackening East — 

Be my tongue mute, my fancy paint no more, 
And dead to joy, forget my heart to beat. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 221 



RELATION OF GRAMMAR TO 
OTHER BRANCHES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE. 



LESSON LXI. 
General Definitions and Divisions. 

445. Language is the embodiment of mental acts in 
articulate sounds or in words. It may be, — 

I. Spoken. i 

II. Written. 

446. Spoken Language is the utterance of significant 

articulate sounds. 

447. The branches which relate to spoken language, are, — 

(1.) Reading, or the utterance, in proper order, of 
written or printed words, letters or characters. 

(2.) Elocution, or the art of delivering written or ex- 
temporaneous composition with force, propriety and ease. 

(3.) Rhetoric, or the philosophy and art of persuasive 
speaking. 

• There is no word in the language which accurately designates the part 
of grammar relating to the classification and forms arising from the relations 
of words to one another. It is usually included under Etymology, which, 
however, is now made a distinct branch of study, and treats specifically of 
the origin and derivation of words. The exact idea would be expressed by 
the word Morphepology, which may be coined from three Greek words: 
tiop0J7, a form ; mo;, a word ; and \6yo;, discourse. 

21* 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

448. Written language* is the expression of 
thought, sentiment, or volition, by means of certain 
graphic representations. 

449. The branches which relate to written language, are, — 

(1.) Lexicology, which treats of words in their separate 
capacity, and includes — 

(a.) Orthography, or the correct writing of words 
by representing their elementary sounds with proper 
letters. 

(V>.) Etymology, or the origin and derivation of 
words. 

(c.) Definition, or an explanation of the significa- 
tion and applications of words. 
(2.) Grammar, which investigates the properties, rela- 
tions and forms of words combined into sentences; and 
includes, — 

(a.) Morphepology, or the classification and forms 
arising fr6m the relations of words to one another. 

(6.) Syntax, or the construction of sentences. 

(c.) Composition, or the process of inventing ideas, 
and the art of properly expressing them. 

(3.) Exegesis, which is the science of interpretation, 
and includes, — 

(a.) Philology, or the investigating of the origin 
and construe don of languages. 

(6.) Criticism, or judging with propriety of the 
beauties and faults of literary compositions. 

(c.) Mermeneutics, or interpreting and explaining 
to others the meaning of an author's words and phrases. 

* Literature and Written Language are not coextensive terms. Litera- 
ture is thought and sentiment artistically expressed, and may exist in 
an unwritten state. Written Language is language representative, and 
ncludes written and printed compositions of all kinds. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



223 






© 

si 

»** 

© 



I. 



L Reading. 

2. Elocution. 

3. Rhetoric. 



61) 

O 



/" 



s 

© 

ii. S 



i. 



© 



a. Orthography. 
6. Etymology, 
c. Definition. 



a. 



it 



ft 

ft 

fa 
© 






Parts of Speech. 
. b. Properties of Words. 
I c. Forms of Words. 



^•H 



fa 





vc. 





ft 

s 

© 



a. Analysis. 

b. Parsing. 

c. False Syntax. 



a. Capital Letters. 

b. Punctuation. 

c. Figures of Speech- 
es. Varieties of Style. 
e. Properties of Style. 
/. Prose Composition. 
g. Poetry. 




a. Philology. 

b. Criticism. 

c. Hermeneutics, 



Note to the Teacher.-— Use the outlines instead of questions. 
Let one of your more advanced students copy the outline on the 
black-board, while the rest are exercised on other parts of the lesson. 
Then require one or more students to define each term in logical order, 
and let the others criticise. Thus, grammar will become the means 
of high intellectual development. 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON LXII. 
Parts of Speech. 

450. The English language comprises about 100,000 words, 
which may be comprehended under three divisions : — 

I. Ideatives. 
II. Connectives. 
III. Particles. 

451. — I. An Ideative is a word which, by itself, ex- 
presses a complete idea, and the form of which may be 
changed to express grammatical properties. Ideatives 

include, — - 

(1.) Nouns. 
(2.) Pronouns. 
(3.) Adjectives. 
(4.) Verbs. 
(5.) Adverbs. 

452. A Noun is a word which expresses the whole or 
a distinct part of anything; as, Arm, hand, finger. 

453. A Pronoun is a word substituted for the name of 
an object present to the mind; as, John burnt His hand. 

454. An Adjective is a word which expresses some 
quality or limitation of an object; as, This apple is good. 

455. A Verb is a word which expresses affirmation; as, 
John writes; Harry is good. 

456. An Adverb is a word which expresses place, time, 
cause, manner, or degree; as, John writes VERY rapidly. 

457. — II. A Connective is a word used to join certain 
elements of discourse. Connectives include,— 

(6.) Prepositions. 

(7.) Conjunctions. 

(8.) Conjunctive Pronouns. 

(9.) Conjunctive Adverbs* 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 225 

458. A Preposition is a connective which joins words 
representing related things; as, The apples are IN the 
cellar. 

459. A Conjunction is a connective which joins words 
representing related thoughts, sentiments, or volitions ; a^ 
Mary sings and Clara plays. 

460. A Conjunctive Pronoun is a pronoun which con- 
nects the clause, of which it forms a part, to the word 
which the clause modifies ; as, The man whom I loved, is 
dead. 

461. A Conjunctive Adverb is an adverb which connects 
the clause, of which it forms a part, to the word which the 
clause modifies; as, See how it rains! 

462. — III. A Particle is a word which expresses a shade 
of thought or sentiment. Particles include, — 

(10.) Interjections. 

(11.) Expletives. 

(12.) Intensives. 

463. An Interjection is a word which expresses emotion ; 
as, Oh ! alas ! 

464. An Expletive is a word which renders a sentence 
more euphoneous, without expressing any additional idea ; 
as, There is a God. 

Remabk.—A Correlative is a word which expresses antithesis ; as, 
Though he was rich, yet he became poor. 

465. x\n Intensive is a word which renders a sentence 
more emphatic, without expressing any additional idea; as, 
He injured even me. 



226 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



466. Exercise. 

Tell to what class, each of the icords in the following sentences 
belongs. 

1. Of all the birds of our groves and meadows, the Bobolink 
was the envy of my boyhood. 

2. He crossed my path in the sweetest weather and the sweet- 
est season of the year, when all nature called to the fields, and 
the rural feeling throbbed in every bosom. 

3. Oh ! how I envied him ! 

4. No lessons, no tasks, no schools; nothing but holiday, 
frolic, green fields, and fine weather ! 

5. "Well, then, go to market again to-morrow, and buy me the 
worst things you can find. 

6. The fool hath said in his heart, "There is no God." 

7. What ! is thy servant a dog ? 

8. Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains! 

9. Love, and love only, is the loan for love. 

10. Just as the twig is bent, the tree inclines. 

11. None knew thee, but to love thee; none named thee, but 
to praise. 



e 

Cm 
C 



I 



I. Ideatives. 



II. Connectives. 



III. Particles, 



1. Nouns. 

2. Pronouns. 

3. Adjectives. 

4. Verbs. 

5. Adverbs . 

6. Prepositions. 

7. Conjunctions. 

8. Conjunctive Pronouns. 

9. Conjunctive Adverbs. 

Interjections, 
xpletives. 

12. Correlatives. 

13. Intensive*. 



rio. L 

J 11. E 

{ 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 227 

LESSON LXIII. 
Summary and Classification of Rules. 

Subject of Finite Verb. 

§ 126, Rule I. Models, pp. 44 and 45. 
The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

Finite Verb. 

§ 127, Rule II. Models, pp. 44 and 45. 

The finite verb must agree with its subject in person and number. 

Agreement of Pronouns. 

I 128, Rule III. Model, p. 45. 

The pronoun must be in the same person, number, and gender as the name 
of the object which it represents. 

Predicate Nouns or Pronouns. 

\ 157, Rule IV. Models, pp. 63 and 198. 
The attributive noun agrees in number, gender and case with the noun or 
pronoun denoting the same object. 

Construction of Adjectives. 

I 158, Rule Y. Models, pp. 64 and 67. 
The adjective must be construed with the word representing the object to 
which it refers. 

Nouns or Pronouns indicating Possession. 

§ 162, Rule VI. Model, p. 66. 
A noun or pronoun indicating the possession of an indefinite or previously 
mentioned object, takes the possessive form. 

Possessives 

I 167, Rule VII. Model, p. 71. 
A noun or pronoun placed before a noun, to limit its application, must be 
in the possessive case. 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Complement of the Verb. 

2 174 and \ 175, Rule VIII. Models, pp. 75, 195, and 198. 

The complement of a verb must be in the objective case. 

Appositives. 

2 178, Rule IX. Model, p. 77. 
A noun placed after a noun or pronoun to limit its application, must be 
in the same number, gender, and case. 

Construction of Adverbs. 

2 188, Rule X. Models, pp. 82, and 219. 
The adverb must be construed with the word which it modifies, 

Quantitative Complement* 

2 191, Rule XI. Models, pp. F5 and 171. 
The quantitative complement is in the objective case generally without a 
governing word. 

Construction of Prepositions. 

§ 206, Rule XII. Models, pp. 92, 93, 96, 195, and 199. 
A preposition connects words representing related things. 

Complement of the Preposition. 

2 207, Rule XIII. Models, pp. 92, 95, 195, and 199. 
The complement of a preposition must be in the objective case, 

Substantive Connectives. 

2 358, Rule XIV. Models, pp. 148, 149, and 150. 
A substantive connective introduces the clause of which it forms a part. 

Subordinate Connectives. 

2 386, Rule XV. Models, pp. 153, 154, 158, 159, 162, 164, 167, 
170, and 171. 
A subordinate connective joins the clause of which it forms a part to the 
word which the clause modifies. 

Coordinate Conjunctions. 

2 383, Rule XVI. Models, pp. 175 and 179. 
Coordinate conjunctions join similar clauses and elements of the same 
nature, class, and construction. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 229 

Agreement of a Verb with a Compound Subject. 

§ 386, Rule XVII. Model, p. 180. 
A verb having a compound subject agrees in person with the most worthy^ 
and in number according to signification. 

Agreement of Pronouns with a Compound Antecedent* 

i 386, Rule XVIII. Models, pp. 180 and 207. 
A pronoun having a compound antecedent agrees in person and gender 
with the most worthy, and in number according to signification. 

Subject of the Infinitive. 

I 403, Rule XIX. Model, p. 190. 
The subject of an infinitive must be in the objective case. 

Possessive Subject. 

I 404, Rule XX. Model, p. 191. 
The subject of a participle governed by a preposition must be in the pos* 
sessive case. 

Complementary Subject. 

I 405, Rule XXI. Models, pp. 191 and 216. 
The subject of a complementary participle must be in the objective case* 

Infinitives and Participles. 

? 406. Rule XXII. Models, pp. 190 and 216. 

An Infinitive or Participle used to abridge a clause, depends on the word 
denoting the object of which it asserts an act or state. 

Adjectives Modifying Verbs. 

? 416. Rule XXIII. Model, p. 202. 

A verb referring to the quality or condition of the object denoted by its 
subject^ is modified by an adjective. 

Nominative Absolute or Independent. 

$ 438, Rule XXIV. Models, pp. 214 and 215. 
A noun or pronoun used absolutely or independently must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

Particles and Independent Elements. 

% 439, Rule XXV. Models, p. 215. 

Particles and Independent Elements have no grammatical relation to other 

words-, 

22 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

467. The rules of Grammar are of three kinds, viz. :- 
I. Rules of Agreement. 
II. Rules of Government. 
III. Rules of Construction. 



I. Rules of Agreement. 

1. Finite Verb. Rule II., \ 127. 

2. Pronouns. Rule III., § 128. 

3. Predicate Noun. Rule IV., \ 157. 

4. Appositives. Rule IX., 

5. Verbs with compound Subject. Rule XVII., 

6. Pronouns with Compound Antecedent. Rule XVIII. 



II. Rules ©f Government. 

1. Subject of Finite Verb. Rule I., \ 126. 

2. Possessives. Rule VII., \ 167. 

3. Complement of the Verb. Rule VIII., 

4. Complement of a Preposition. Rule XIII., 

5. Objective Subject, Rule XIX., 

6. Possessive Subject, Rule XX., 

7. Complementary Subject. Rule XXI.. 

8. Nominative Absolute or Independent. Rule XXIV., 

9. Quantitative Complement, Rule XI, 

10. Nouns or pronouns indicating Possession. Rule VI, 

III. Rules of Construction. 

1. Adjectives. Rule V, \ 158. 

2. Adverbs. Rule X, 

3. Prepositions. Rule XII, 

4. Substantive Connectives. Rule XIV, 

5. Subordinate Connectives. Rule XV, 

6. Coordinate Conjunctions. Rule XVI, 

7. Infinitives and Participles. Rule XXII, 

8. Adjectives with Verbs. Rule XXIII, 

9. Particles and Independent Elements. Rule XXV, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



231 



APPENDIX A. 

Words adopted from other languages form their plurals accor- 
ding to the languages from which they are derived, but the ten- 
dency is to naturalize such words and give them an English 
form; as, Dogma, dogmata, (Anglicized) DOGMAS; memoran- 
dum, memoranda, (Anglicized) MEMORANDUMS. 

The following classified list comprises nearly all the word* 
in general use adopted from other languages. 

1. A is changed to m. 



Alumna, 

Fibula, 

Lamina, 

Larva, 

Macula, 



alumnae. 

fibulae. 

laminae. 

larvae. 

maculae. 



Minutia, 
Nebula, 



scoria, 



minutiae. 

nebulae. 

scoriae. 

simiae. 

vertebrae. 



Simia, 
Vertebra, 
Arena, cicada and. formula form their plurals also regularly. 

2. A is changed to ATA. 

Dogma, dogmata, dogmas, regular 

Miasma, miasmata, 

Stigma, stigmata, stigmas, regular 

3. US is changed into I. 



Alumnus, 

Calculus, 

Echinus, 

Ma^us, 

Focus, 

Fungus, 



alumni. 

calculi 

echini. 

magi. 

foci, 

fungi, 



Sarcophagus, 
Stimulus, 
Terminus, 
Tumulus, 
focusus. regular 
funguses, regular 



sarcophagi, 
stimuli, 
termini, 
tumuli. 



Hippopotamus, hippopotami, hippopotamuses, regular 

Nautilus, nautili, nautiluses, regular 

Nucleus, nuclei, nucleuses, regular 

Polypus, polyP^ polypuses, regular 



R,»4ius. 



Tadii, 



radiuses, regular 



232 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 





4. TJM or ON i 


's changed ■ 


into A. 


Animalculum, 


aninialcula. 


Effluvium, 


effluvia, 


Aphelion, 


aphelia. 


Ephemeron, ephemera. 


Arcanum. 


arcana. 


Erratum, 


errata. 


Corrigendum. 


corrigenda. 


Parhelion 


, parhelia. 


Datum, 


data. 


Perihelion 


i, perihelia. 


Desideratum. 


desiderata. 


Phenomenon, phenomena. 


Aquarium. 


aquaria, 




aquariums. nguUtr 


Automaton. 


automata 


> 


automatons regular 


Criterion. 


criteria, 




criterion^, regular 


Encomium, 


encomia, 




encomiums, regular 


Fulcrum, 


fulcra, 




fulcrum s. regular 


Gymnasium, 


gymnasia 


5 


gymnasiums, regular 


Herbarium. 


herbaria, 




herbariums, regular 


Medium, 


media, 




mediums, regular 


Memorandum, 


memoranda, 


memorandums, rey. 


Menstruum, 


menstrua 


5 


menstruums. regular 


Momentum, 


momenta. 




m omen turns, regular 


Rostrum, 


rostra, 




rostrums, regular 


Scholium. 


scholia, . 




scholiums, regular 


Spectrum, 


spectra, 




spectrums. regular 


Speculum, 


specula, 




speculums. regular 


Stratum, 


strata. 




stratums. regular 


Trapezium, 


trapezia, 




trapeziums, regular 


Vinculum, 


vincula. 




vinculums, regular 




5. IS is changed into ES. 


Amanuensis, 


amanuenses. 


Hypothesis, hypotheses 


Analysis, 


analyses. 


Metamorphosis, metamorphoses. 


Antithesis, 


antitheses. 


Oasis, 


oases. 


Axis, 


axes. 


Parenthesis, parentheses. 


Basis, 


bases. 


Phasis, 


phases. 


Crisis, 


crises. 


Praxis, 


praxes. 


Diaeresis, 


diaereses. 


Synopsis, 


synopses. 


Diesis, 


dieses. 


Synthesis^ 


syntheses. 


Ellipsis, 


ellipses. 


Thesis, 


theses. 


Emphasis, 


emphases. 







ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



233 





6. is is changed into ides. 


Aphis> 


aphides. Ephemeris, cpheracridcs* 


Apsis, 


apsides. Epidermis, epiderniides* 


Cantharis, 


cantharides. Proboscis 


, proboscides. 


Chrysalis, 


chrysalides. Iris, 


irides or irises. 




7. X is changed, into CES. 


Appendix, 


appendices, 


appendixes, regular 


Oak, 


calces, 


calxes, regular 


Calyx, 


calyces, 


calyxes, regular 


Cicatrix> 


cicatrices, 


cicatrixes, regular 


Helix, 


helices, 


helixes, regular 


Matrix, 


matrices* 


matrixes, regular 


Radix, 


radices, 


radixes. regular 




8. EX is chanrjed into ICES. 


Apex, 


apices. 


apexes, regular 


Vertex, 


vertices, 


vertexes. regular 


Vortex, 


vortices, 


vortexes, regular 




9. Plurals variously formed. 


Beau. 


beaux, 


beaus. regular 


Bandit, 


banditti, 


bandits, regular 


Cherub, 


cherubim, 


cherubs, regular 


Grenus, 


genera. 




Hiatus, 


hiatus, 


hiatuses, regular 


Larynx, 


larynges, 


larynxes, regular 


Madame, 


mesdames. 




Monsieur, 


messieurs. 




Mr., 


messrs. 




Phalanx, 


phalanges, 


phalanxes, regular 


Seraph, 


seraphim, 


seraphs, regular 


Stamen, 


stamina, 


stamens, regular 


Vertigo, 


vertigines, 


vertigoes, regular 


Virtuoso, 


virtuosi, 


virtuosos, regular 


E 


22* 





234 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



APPENDIX B. 

I. By a difference of Termination* 



Abbot, 


abbess. 


Inventor, 


inventres& 


Actor, 


actress. , 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Administrator, administratrix 


, Landgrave, 


landgravine. 


Adventurer, 


adventuress. 


Lamnderer, 


laundress. 


Adulterer, 


adulteress. 


Lion, 


lioness. 


Ambassador, 


ambassadress. 


Marquis, 


marchioness. 


Anchoret, 
Anchorite, 


> anchoress. 


Margrave, 
Mayor, 


margravine, 
mayoress. 


Arbiter, 
Author, 


arbitress. 
authoress. 


Mediator, 


( mediatress. 
\ mediatrix. 


Auditor, 


auditress. 


Monitor, 


monitress. 


Baron, 


baron ess. 


Negro, 


negress. 


Benefactor, 


benefactress. 


Omt.nT' 


( oratress. 
{ oratrix. 


Caterer, 


cateress. 


\J IcXiVKJi. , 


Chanter, 


chantress. 


Painter, 


paintress. 


Conductor, 


conductress. 


Patron, 


patroness. 


Count, 


countess. 


Poet, 


poetess. 


Dauphin, 


dauphiness. 






Deacon, 


deaconess. 


Preceptor, 


preceptress. 


Director T 


directress. 


Priest, 


priestess. 


Diviner, 


divinesa 


Prince, 


princess. 


Doctor, 


doc tress. 


Prior, 


prioress. 


Don, 


donna. 


Prosecutor, 


prosecutrix. 


Duke, 


duchess. 


Prophet, 


prophetess. 


Editor, 


editress. 


Proprietor, 


proprietress 


Elector, 


electress. 


Shepherd, 


shepherdess. 


Emperor, 


empress. 


Signor, 


signora. 


Enchanter, 


enchantress. 


Songster, 


songstress. 


Executor, 


executrix. 


Sorcerer, 


sorceress. 


Founder, 


foundress. 


Spectator, 


spectatress. 


Giant, 


giantess. 


Sultan, 


sultana* 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



235 



God, 


goddess. 


Tailor, 


tailoress. 


Goodman, 


goody. 


Testator, 


testatrix. 


Governor, 


governess. 


Teacher, 




Heir, 


heiress. 


Teamster, 




Hermit, 


hermitess* 


Tiger, 


tigress. 


Hero, 


heroine. 


Traitor, 


traitress. 


Host, 


hostess. 


Tutor, 


tutress. 


Huckster, 


hucksteress. 


Tzar, 


Izarina. 


Hunter, 


huntress. 


Victor, 


victoresa 


Idolater, 


idolatress. 


Waiter, 


waitress- 


Infant, 


infanta- 


Yv r i dower. 


widow. 


Instructor, 


instructress. 








2. By different words. 




Bachelor, 


maid, spinster, 


Lad, 


lass. 


Baker, 




Lord, 


lady. 


Beau, 


belle. 


Lover, 


lady-love. 


Boar, 


sow. 


Male, 


female. 


Boy, 


girL 


Man, 


woman. 


Brewer. 




Master, 


mistress. 


Bridegroom, 


bride. 


Master, 


,miss. 


Brother, 


sister. 


Milter, 


spawn er. 


Buck, 


doe- 


Mr., 


mrs. 


Bull, 


cow. 


Monk, friar 


nun. 


Bulhck, steer 


heifer. 


Monsieur, 


rnadame. 


Cock, rooster 


hen. 


Monsieur, 


mademoiselle 


Colt, 


filly. 


Nephew, 


niece. 


Dog, 


bitch. 


Papa, 


mamma. 


Drake, 


duck. 


Rake, 


jilt 


Earl, 


countess. 


Ram, buck 


ewe. 


Father, 


mother. 


Sir, 


madam. 


Gander, 


goose. 


Sire, horse. 


dam. 


Gentleman, 


lady. 


Sloven, 


slattern, slut. 


Hart, 


hind. 


Son, 


daughter. 


Horse, stallion 


', mare. 


Spouse, 


consort. 


He. 


she. 


Stag, 


hind. 


Husband, 


wife. 


Swain, 


nymph. 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Indian, 


squaw. 


Uncle, 


aunt. 


EIng, 


queen. 


Wizard, 


witch. 






Youth, 


maiden. 



3c By affixing a distinguishing Word. 

Cbc^-sparrow, Aen-sparrow. Mer-mcm, mer-maid* 

English-wm, English-woman. School-master, school-mistress* 

Grand-father , grand-mother, Turkey -gobbler, turkey-Ae?i. 

JTe-goat, she-goat. Buck-rabbit, ^/oe-rabbit. 

jl/em-servant, maid-servant. JfaZe-descend- /ewa/e-descend- 

ifaZc-child, female-child, ants, ants. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 237 



APPENDIX C. 

The Elements of Speech are of two kinds, vowels and 
consonants. 

Remark. — It is not the alphabetic letters which are vowels and con- 
sonants, but the sounds which are used in speech. 

The vowels are formed when the vocal passage is open and 
free, and the consonants when it is more or less closed. 

Towel means vocal, and vowels are sonant, or have a sound. But 
there are languages which have whispered as well as sonant vowels. 

Vowels are pronounced slowly or rapidly, making them long 
or short. The long vowel heard in naught (or nought) is short 
in not, what, and the long o of own is short in o-bey. The 
short eh of merry (Greek §) is long in there (French e) when 
not pronounced as in they; and the long vowel of feel, scene, 
marine is short in deceit, feet, or feat. 

The short vowels of fit and fat are never long in good 
English. 

Remark.— At Bath, in England, this name is pronounced with the 
vowel of fat lengthened. 

When the mouth is well opened, the vowel of arm results, — 
the most noble of the vowels according to the ancients, and the 
Greek and Roman A. Closing the organs towards the lips we 
get successively the vowels of owe and pull; while closing to- 
wards the throat we get those of vein and machine. These may 
be tabulated thus, with the " Continental," or true Latin, sound 
of the letters : — . 

A 

O E 

V I 

These are the five primary vowels, to which some languages 
are restricted, but English has many more. French u (Danish 
y, Greek u) lies between U and I of pull and marine. 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

The English vowels are heard in pull, pool, ode, odd, awed, 
aim, up, ask add, there, them, they, pity, field. 

Remark. — In some localities the vowels of ask and there are not 
used. 

When the lip vowel of pull and the throat vowel of field are 
closed upon, the labial consonant of woo and the guttural of ye 
result; and closing upon these we get h and gay. 

Coalescents. — The vowels of pull and field may be closed 
upon so slightly that they seem still to be vowels, although they 
are consonants a little less interrupted than in woo and ye. 

The labial coalescent is heard in now, owl, out. 

The guttural coalescent is heard in boy, boil, aisle (or 
isle, by, bite), buoy, which is properly boo-y. 

Remark. — Acoalescent with its antecedent vowel is commonly called 
a diphthong. A diphthong is not composed of two vowels, or the result 
would be a dissyllable, as in claw-y, which has two syllables where cloy 
has but one. 

The sonant, or voiced consonants, are w, m, b, v? 1, n, 
d, dh (in them)) r, z; sen; y, ng, gay. 

The surd, or voiceless consonants, are wh, p 9 f; t, th (in 
thin)) s; sh; 1c; h. This quality is akin to whisper, but it 
is not the same. Thus p is a surd, but not a whispered b. 

Consonants are divided into liquids and mutes. 

The liquids are made with the mouth* organs half closed; and 
the mutes with the same organs nearly or entirely closed. 

The spirants, or voiced aspirates, are v, dh, as, zh. 

The aspirates, or voiceless continuants, are wh, f, th, s, 
sh, h. The initial of hew (yh-y-oo) belongs here, and also the 
sound following t in court-ier, cott-ier, when it is not turned into 
tsh. The sonant of the latter occurs in soldier when it is not 
converted into soldjer. 

The liquids are w, 1, r, y. Of these, w becomes an aspi- 
rate in when (wh-w-e-n); /, r. take this quality in Welsh, and 
rh is the l^atin letter for the Greek form. 

* This word is used because the nose is an organ also. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



239 



The nasals (nasal mutes) are m f n, ng; of which m is a 

nasal h, n a nasal d, and ng, a nasal gay. 

Remark. — In the exclamation km! made with the mouth closed, m 
becomes a surd and an aspirate, followed by vocal m. 

The sonant abrupt mutes are b f d, gay, all of which can 
be detached. 

The surd abrupt mutes are p, t, It, which cannot be 
pronounced alone, as those pretend who give them with an ex- 
plosive issue of breath, as in detaching the ph of haphazard. 

The consonants are made by the closure of the organs at 
points called contacts, of which there are six in English, the 
(1) labial, (2) dental, (8) sigmal, (4) palatal, (5) guttural, and 
(6) laryngal. 

Remark 1. — As f and v are formed with the lips and teeth, they are 
sometimes called labio-dentals, but their affinity is with the labials. 

Remark 2. — The interruption for h is made, not by closing the 
organs, but by forcing the breath through the narrow aperture of the 
larynx, by an effort which excludes it from many languages. 

In the following table the elements are distributed according 
to their affinities, the consonants being placed in their proper 
contacts, and the vowels loosely indicated as labial, palatal, and 
guttural : — 

Vowels. 



PALATAL 


• awed, 


arm, 


up, ask. 


add, there. 








f odd, 








them, 


i 

I 

I 




LABIAL,, < 


ode, 
pool, 








they, 
pity, 


OtrTTlRAI 




. pull, 








field. 


1 










Consonants 


■ 








Labial. 


Dental. 


Sigmal. 


Palatal. 


Guttural. Laryngal. 


LIQVID, - 


' now 
Woo 


1 


r 


soldier 


boy 

ye 




I sonant. 




wh 


... 


... 


cottier 


hew 




h surd. 




r m 


n 


... 


... 


sing: \ 
Say J 




nasal. 




» 


d 


... 


... 




sonant. 


MUTE, - 


v 


dh 


% 


*tt 


(&) 




spirant. 




p 


t 


... 




k 




surd. 




ir 


tti 


■ 


*n 


«*) 




aspirate 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

* 
JE^f* The foregoing remarks on the Elements of Speech, their 
Classification and Notation, were prepared for this work by 
Prof. Haldeman, of Columbia, Pa* This Appendix contains 
some of the results of his investigations of this subject, as em- 
bodied in his Trevelyan Prize Essay. See "Analytic Ortho- 
graphy : an Investigation of the Sounds of the Voice, and their 
Alphabetic Notation; including the Mechanism of Speech, and 
its bearing upon Etymology. By S» S. HALDEMAN, A.M., Pro- 
fessor in Delaware College, Member of the American Philo- 
sophical Society , etc. London: Trubner <Sc Co. Paris: Benja- 
min Duprat. Berlin: Ferd. Dummler* 1860/' 



